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PUBLISHED EVERY SATURDAY. 

THE LUMBERMAN PUBLISHING CO. 



PROPRIETORS. 



W. Ji. JUDSON, Editor. 



Offices, 154 Lake Street, corner of La Salle, Chicago, 111. 



TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION: 

On* Copy One Tear, $3.00. - - Six Months, $l.SO. 

Strictly in Advance. 



t\ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 



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CNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



II particulars 

or Foreign, 

idents. It is 

/ORLD, 
ions respect- 
ieda! corres- 
(ts. 

p Northwest, 

each season, are alone worth to any operator, many times the yearly 
subscription price of the paper. They comprise a detailed statement of 
the lumber and shingles manufactured at each mill, with summaries of 
the amount of stock, lumber and logs, left over on hand at the close of 
each season. During the logging season it gives detailed information 
every week from each loggiug stream, enabling lumbermen to keep 
thoroughly posted upon the progress of the work and make calculations 
accordingly. 

SEND FOR PROSPECTUS AND CATALOGUE. 



It. 



THE LUMBERMAN'S ' 

Consolidated Account Book.*- 



Arranged for the special nse of retail lumber merchants by the Editor 
of the Nobxhwestebn Lumbebman, so ruled and printed that the Sales, 
Receipts and stock on hand of Lumber, Lath. Shingles, Pickets, Sash, 
Doors and Blind.-, or Sundries, are shown by the day, month or year in 
one book, with the cash received or paidfor each article. It is also ruled 
so that different kinds of lumber may be kept separate— for example : It 
will show at anytime the quantity of Clear Lumber. Flooring, Siding, 
Ceiling, Fencing, Common Boards, Joist and Scantling, etc., on ha:id in 
the yard or that has been sold during the week, month or year. It like- 
wise will show the same thing in regard to Lath, Pickets, Sash, Doors and 
Blinds. It will show at the end of the year, on a single page, the amount 
of each article bought or sold, with the prices, the average cost and aver 
age price obtained, and the amount on hand. The book requires no book- 
keeping, the directions, headings and rulings are so plain that any one 
can easily keep it, and it will last for FOUR TEARS. The price of 
this book is $4, free by mail — only $1 ayearfor the timeitis made tolast, 
and being but little more than half the price for whicu a single copy can 
be made. It will be sent C. O. D. when desired. 



POCKET TALLY BOOKS. 



These books are made expressly for keeping tally of lumber, etc., by 
the piece, and are especially adapted to the use of dealers in, or manu- 
facturers of, Hardwood, and will also be particularly valuable to all buy- 
ers of this class of woods for Furniture and Agricultural Implement mak- 
ers, etc. Each page has printed headings, upon which may be written 
the kind of lumber, date and place of measurement, from and for whom, 
number of the car into which it may be loaded, etc. It is ruled with red 
and blue lines, and divided in the width into 15 spaces, in which the 
measurer makes his marks. At the left of the page a space is left in which 
may be set down the sizes or lengths of the pieces to be tallied. For con- 
venience and rapidity of reckoning, each perpendicular space which holds 
five marks is headed as follows : 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30. £5. 40, 45, 50, 55, 60 
and 65, a wider space being left on the right, in which to set the total of 
each horizontal line of marks. Another space is left at the bottom of the 
page for figuring up the totals, memorandums, etc. Each book contains 
one hundred pages of first class paper, in stiff leather covers, and bound 
so the covers may be bent back to back without injury. Price by mail, 
to any address : One copy, fifty cents; three copies, $1.25. Address., 

THE NORTHWESTERN LUMBERMAN, 

154 Lake Street, Chicago. 



THE 



^Standard Moulding; Book- 

A CATALOGUE OF 

Mouldings, Brackets, Doors, Windows, Frames, etc., of 

Standard and Special Sizes and Designs. 



This book contains all the regular designs of Mouldings, Architraves, 
etc., manufactured by the leading makers in the West. The diagrams are 
full size and made to the exact measurement, and can be used as 
patterns by which to set the cutters. Ea< h class of Mouldings may be 
found in a group by itself, instead of all of them badly mixed together in 
a state of confusion as has hitherto been the case in similar books. It 
contains a number of new and greatly improved designs not to be found 
elsewhere. In Doors, Windows and Frames it has the very latest styles 
of inside and outside finish and a greater variety than has ever before 
been given. 

The Standard Book is used by leading manufacturers. It will be fur- 
nished in any number required, at a very low rate to Sash, Door and 
Blind Manufacturers or Dealers. A special inducement will be offered 
for orders of l.OCO copies and upwards. Anyone desiring it can have a 
special arrangement of engravings for Stair Work, Balusters, Newels, etc. 
A sample copy will be mailed free to intending purchasers on receipt of 
a three cent stamp. We also publish 

THE UNIVERSAL PRIGE LIST 

FOR 

Sash, Doors and Blinds 

Adopted by the Northwestern Association, 

and us Hi by all leading manufacturers, furnished in any desired quantity, 
guaranteed to be accurate in prices. This list contains all the regular 
sizes of Sash, Doors and Blinds, and is handsomely printed and bound in 
any style to suit. We have a varied assortment of engravings of Stair 
Plans, Balusters, Newel Posts, Stair Railings, Gates, etc., which will be 
inserted with the Price List, if desired, making a very attractive pamphlet. 
For terms address or call on, 

The Northwestern Lumberman, 

1. 74 Lake Street, Chicago. + 
/ 



THE 



LUMBERMAN'S 



HAND BOOK. 



NEW EDITION. 



ENLARGED AND ILLUSTRATED. 
B Y -WJ- IB. J-TJJD&02ST, ' 



editor Northwestern LumberamttC^ - _, .* ~—-^ 

L-, vuuA 



I ^oXl^J%yJ 



CHICAGO: -X^_ 

The Northwestern Lumberman. 
1881. 



4 




Littered According to A< t ofCotigress in the year A. D. 1881, 

by W. B.Judsvii in the office of the Librarian, of 

Congress at Washington, D. C. 



I 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Lumber Inspection and Grading, 

Introduction, - - - - - - 

Albany Inspection, - 

Michigan Inspection, .... 

Michigan Inspection Law, 

Saginaw Inspection, .... 

Chicago Cargo Inspection, 
Chicago Yard Grading, 
Chicago Hardwood Inspection, 
St. Louis Inspection, - - 

WlLLlAMSPORT INSPECTION. 

Maine Survey. - 

Burlington, Vt., Inspection, 

New Orleans Inspection, - 

Boston Inspection, - 

Quebec Culling, .... 

Minneapolis Inspection, - 
Log Measurements, ...".. 

Lumberman's Favorite Log Rule, 

Scribner's Log Rule, - 

Doyle's Log Rule, - - 

Shingle Manufacture, .... 

Rural Architecture, - 
Hints to Builders, - 

Strength of Materials, etc., 

Heating and Ventilation. 
Retailer's Ready Reckoner, 
Planing-Mill Machinery. • 
Laws of Mechanics' Liens. 

Laws of Log Liens, .... 

Miscellaneous Information. 

For full Alphabetical Index, seepages 188 and 189. 



PAGE. 

5-54 
5 

- 7 
8 

- 9 
12 

- lb 
19 

- 24 
20 

- 31 
32 

- 34 
35 

- 44 
40 

- 53 
• 55-61 

- 5S 
50 

- 60 
- 62-64 

65-105 

106-120 

106 

113 

120-129 

130-152 

153-171 

172-174 

175 



ENGRAVED AND PRINTED 8r THE 

Northwestern Lumberman Printing & Engraving House, 
154 Lake Street, Chicago, III., U. S. A. 



y 






Lumber Inspection. 



One of the most difficult tasks in the domain of lumber literature is the 
putting upon paper of a description of those various divisions or grades 
which are found to prevail in different localities. Surveying, as it is 
known in Maine and some other localities. Inspection, as it is termed in 
Albany and the West, consists of fixing a value to each individual piece of 
lumber. Inasmuch as no two are exactly alike, it is impossible to estab- 
lish an arbitrary rule for the guidance of the Inspector, and as a conse- 
quence, the individual judgment must determine the value of each, from 
a consideration of its general character, and the uses to which it can 
be put in house building or manufacture. 

As the judgment of men varies as much as each piece of lumber 
from its fellow, it becomes very difficult for one to see the value and 
character of a board exactly as it is seen by all others, and hence it is 
well nigh impossible to prescribe what shall constitute a board of any 
particular grade. If it be perfect in all other respects, it may not be of 
equal value with another equally, but no more, perfect board, in that it is 
of a more glassy, brash and tough texture, less straight and free in grain, 
and wholy unfit for the finer uses to which its fellow may be well suited. 
All these and many other considerations enter into the proper and judici- 
ous assorting and valuing of lumber, and must be determined according 
to the judgment and experience of the Inspector. 

But while no arbitrary rule can be established, it was determined early 
in the history of the trade, that one could be applied to the general 
characteristics of lumber, which would guide both the buyer and seller in 
determining the value of a given piece. While these general characteristics 
applied to the distributions between the manufacturer and the consumer 
in the infancy of the trade, while but a comparatively small quantity was 
produced and consumption kept pace with production, when the demand 
increased and it was found necessary to build mills in the forest at a 
distance from the consumer, middlemen became necessary, and at various 
points in the country immense depots were established, to which the mill 
product could be shipped, and whence it could be distributed. But the 
still increasing population moving further and further from the points of 



INTRODUCTORY. 



supply, necessitated another set of distributors, and the first began to 
confine their trade to selling, at wholesale, to the latter as retailers. 

Now, the rules that had guided the mill-man in selling to his customers, 
required modification, and to prevent too great an advance in price, the 
retailer was compelled to obtain his compensation through a division into 
grades, and this system of grading has advanced to its present status, 
which may be almost classed among the fine arts, yet marked by as great 
a variance as there are individual judgments to determine it. 

It is the purpose of this work to endeavor to point out the general laws 
governing the inspection of lumber, without expecting to wholly har- 
monize the ever conflicting opinions of the grand army of knights of the 
board rule. If, however, it succeeds in establishing a more generally 
uniform system of Inspection and yard-grading, the effort may well be 
called successful. 

Albany, N. Y., after Bangor, Me., and Port Deposit, Pa., early became 
the most important center of the lumber trade of the country, and pro- 
mulgated a system of Inspection, or sorting into qualities, which soon 
superceded the early rule of Surveying, which was simply straight meas- 
ure, or the determining of the number of feet, regardless of quality. In 
this connection it may properly be said, that in the early days of lumber 
manufacture, it was the aim and custom of the producer to cut only the 
better class of trees, and it is within the memory of the writer, when the 
grades now known as Selects, Fine Common, or Picks, was the poorest 
which found its way to market as Common, and that which now comprises 
the bulk of the lumber handled, was considered as only fit to be sold at 
the mill, and such of it as by accident found its way to market was sold 
for what it would bring, often not realizing the cost of transportation. 
The growth of the trade, however, soon admonished the manufacturer 
that he must be more conservative with his timber, and the shipments 
and sale of Coarse Common, which included all between the present 
grade of Selects and Culls, was undertaken. 

The fast depleting forests and the increased consumption throughout 
the country, especially of the lower grades, soon demonstrated that con- 
sumers were utilizing the cheaper product for eutting-up lumber, and 
that doors, sash and other building material could be made equally well 
from this grade as from the higher priced qualities. Albany now began 
to select out the nicer Common below the Fine Common grade, and Pick- 
ings became a favorite in that district. 

If the wholesaler could make Pickings out of the Common, the retailer, 
equally fertile in resources, could make other qualities, and so sub- 
divisions, such as A and B Selects, B Box, B Stock, 8-inch Flooring, and 
a hundred other designations came in vogue. These are one and all but 
sub-divisions of the old and well-known Albany grades, Clear, Fourths, 



ALBANY INSPECTION. 



Box, Common, and Culls, more particularly of the Common. The desig- 
nations given are uniform, but as before remarked, the selection varies 
widely, and an A Select in one yard may be bought as a Third Clear, or A 
Box, or even as a B Box in another. 

The various systems of Inspection, Grading and Measurement are given 
in the following pages in about the order of their adoption in the different 
localities. It is more than probable that if any one standard of yard- 
grading is adopted universally at wholesale centers, it will be something 
very similar to that in vogue in Chicago, as it is believed to come nearest 
to meeting the general want of any method now in use. Markets com- 
peting directly with Chicago have aimed to grade as near like it as possible, 
and if this little work affords any aid in this direction, it will be a source 
of very great satisfaction to the publishers. 



ALBANY INSPECTION. 



This was originally divided into five qualities, viz. : Clear, Fourths, Box 
or Selects, Common and Culls. Clear, or Three "Uppers, was sub-divided 
into three grades : First, Second and Third. 

First Grade, — A First Clear board shall be perfect in all respects, free 
from wane, knot, rot, shake or check, not less than twelve feet long and 
eight inches wide, (in any case) unless a very wide and thick piece, when 
a minimum length of ten feet may be allowed. 

Second Grade. — Not less than twelve feet in length, unless very wide 
and thick, with not more than two defects, i. e., two sound knots which 
could be covered by a York shilling (dime), or sap equal to one inch on 
one side, or one knot and one sap ; not less than ten inches wide, well 
manufactured, and free from rot, shake or check. 

Third Grade. — Not less than twelve feet long, unless very wide and 
thick, and ten inches wide, free from rot, shake or check, when three 
defects might be allowed; either three knots which a York shilling would 
cover, or two saps an inch wide, with one small knot. If very wide the 
defects might be allowed slightly to increase, but not so as to injure the 
general character of the piece. These three grades are included in one 
and designated Clear or Good. 

Fourths.— Not less than twelve feet long and twelve inches wide, with 
not exceeding four defects at that width, viz. : if free from sap. four 
sound knots on the heart side, not larger than a dime; if free from knots, 
two saps which must not exceed two inches on each edge, and must be 



MICHIGAN INSPECTION. 



bright. At the minimum width, one face must be perfect; with increas- 
ing width latitude may be allowed to the extent of the sap. 

Select Box.*— Not less than twelve feet in length and eight inches in 
width in any case. Must, if narrow, have one perfect face, and may have 
small knots, not exceeding five, in a width of fourteen inches or more. 
Sap may meet on one end, for not more than one-fifth the length, or two 
saps may be allowed on sap side, but must have at least three inches of 
heart wood between; sap must be bright; must be free from rot, shake 
and checks. 

Box or Cmnmon. — All sound lumber free from knots, shaky hearts, 
rot, shake and worm holes which is below the grades before named, shall 
be classed as Box or Common. 

Pickings. — A grade of common which in its general character will dress 
one side clear, or has no great number of small knots, but is suitable for 
finishing lumber. (A good fine common, but indifferent select.) 

Ctills.— Will not hold water, shaky, rotten, coarse knots, black and 
mouldy sap. If very rotten, embracing more than one-eighth of the 
board, it becomes a scoot, refuse or mill cull. Market culls must be good 
enough to make hog pens, board fences or roof boards. 

Scoots, Refuse or Mill Culls. — Lumber that is not worth removing 
from the mill, and is fit only to be burned. 



*In the early days of the trade, the grade Select was known as Box, 
while Sound Common was known as Merchantable. 



MICHIGAN INSPECTION. 



The Saginaw Valley became the most extensive producing section of the 
country from about the year 1850, it being in the hey-day of its prosperity 
from about 1860 to 1875, during which period its manufacturers approxi- 
mated yearly shipments from six to eight hundred million feet, and sales 
were ostensibly governed by Albany Inspection. The grade was of sup- 
erior quality, and the question of Inspection became an important one. 
In order to secure as nearly as possible a uniformity in this regard, the 
manufacturers in 1873 obtained the passage of an Act of the Legislature, 
establishing in each organized Count y or other sub division of territory, 
Inspection Districts, each having an officer known as Inspector General, 
with Deputies and Sub-Inspectors to be appointed by him. The details 
of this law, which was subsequently repealed, need not be given here, but 
the inspection presented by it, being somewhat, in its governing prin- 



MICHIGAN INSPECTION. 



ciples, in force by reason of prevailing custom, will be of interest to lum- 
bermen everywhere. 

It will be observed that in the upper grades, especially First. Clear, it 
is more liberal than Albany, wherefore it may be argued, that inasmuch 
as a large proportion of the better grades from Eastern Michigan find 
their way to Albany, and are subject to inspection there, the present cus- 
tom at Albany conforms very nearly to the rules established in Michigan. 

Allowance must be made for the fact that established usage in Saginaw 
does not fully conform to the law as written. In fact, under the operation 
of the law, it is presumable, upon good grounds, that it was never strictly 
adhered to. It is a noticeable fact in all markets, that Inspection varies 
largely with an advancing or declining market ; it becomes more or less 
liberal in proportion to the demand and readiness of sale. This is one of 
the main difficulties in the way of prescribing Inspection rules which 
shall always govern in all localities. At the same time, it is manifestly 
unjust that a piece of himber which will pass in a given grade under an 
advancing market, should rank in a lower grade in a duller market. Many 
Michigan Inspectors never took kindly to the law as it was written, and 
varied their Inspection to conform to their personal opinions and judg- 
ments, and since its repeal have continued to do so. The tendency of the 
law was to the side of leniency, favoring the seller rather than the buyer, 
and its repeal was presumably in accordance with public sentiment, as 
expressed by the trade at large. It is, however, the only written exposi- 
tion ever given for the guidance of the trade, and as such it is appended. 

Synopsis of the Michigan Inspection JLatv of 18 13. 

Sec. 3.-—* * * * It shall be the duty of each Inspector General, 
Deputy and Sub-Inspector, in determining the quality and quantity of 
lumber inspected by him, to place the same in that class or quality as 
hereinafter defined, to which it approaches the nearest in description and 
value, at all times using the description of qualities contained in this act 
as the standard of comparison. 

Sec. 9.— All merchantable White Pine lumber shall be classified as fol- 
lows, for purposes of Inspection : First Clear, Second Clear, Third Clear, 
Common and Shipping Culls ; and boards six inches wide shall be known 
as Strips. Norway Pine shall be classified as Common and Shipping 
Culls, except as hereinafter provided. 

Sec. 10.— First Clear lumber shall be not less than eight inches wide, 
twelve feet long and one inch thick, and at such width, and up to ten 
inches wide, shall be free from all imperfections. If the width is twelve 
inches, defects shall be allowed that will equal knots in the aggregate of 
one inch in diameter, or sap that will be equal to one and one-half inches 
on one surface. If the width is sixteen inches, defects shall be allowed 



10 MICHIGAN INSPECTION. 

that will equal knots in the aggregate of two inches in diameter, or sap 
that will equal two inches on one surface. If the width is twenty inches, 
defects shall be allowed that will be equal to knots in the aggregate of two 
and a half inches in diameter, or sap that will be equal to three inches in 
width on one surface. The Inspector shall take particular notice and shall 
allow a due proportion of defects for all pieces of widths between or above 
the given standards; also shall allow additional defects as the lengths in- 
crease above twelve feet, in proportion to such increased dimensions. He 
shall also allow as follows in each of the three grades of clear lumber, 
viz : For each additional half inch in thickness, additional defects in pro- 
portion that shall equal knots in the aggregate of one-quarter inch more 
in diameter, or sap that will be equal to one-quarter of an inch more in 
width. All pieces shall be well manufactured and of full thickness (all 
knots to be sound) , and all sap to be free from black stain that is of such 
character that it cannot be removed by dressing, and no piece shall be 
allowed with more than one straight split, and that to be not over one- 
fifth the length of the piece, which shall be counted as one defect. 

Second Clear.— Shall be not less than eight inches wide, twelve feet 
long and one inch thick, and at such width, and up to ten inches wide, 
defects shall be allowed that will be equal to knots in the aggregate, of 
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, or sap that will be equal to three- 
quarters of an inch in width on one surface. If the width is twelve 
inches, defects shall be allowed that will be equal to knots in the aggre- 
gate of one and a half inches in diameter, or sap that will be equal to 
three inches in width on the edges. If the width is sixteen inches, de- 
fects shall be allowed that will equal knots in the aggregate of two and a 
half inches in diameter, or sap that will be equal to four inches in width 
on the edges. If the width is twenty inches, defects shall be allowed that 
will be equal to knots in the aggregate of three inches in diameter, or sap 
that will be equal to five inches in width on the edges. A straight split 
shall be allowed in this quality as before provided in boards of the width 
of twelve inches or over, and be counted as one defect. 

Third Clear.— Shall be not less than seven inches wide, twelve feet 
long, and one inch thick, and at such width, and up to ten inches, defects 
shall be allowed that will be equal in injury to a knot one and one-half 
inches in diameter, or sap that will be equal to one and one-half inches 
in width on the best side. If the width is twelve inches, defects shall be 
allowed that will be equal in injury to a knot of two and one-half inches 
in diameter, or sap that will be equal to two and one-half inches wide on 
the best side. If the width is sixteen inches, defects shall be allowed 
that will be equal in injury to a knot of four inches, or sap that shall be 
equal to four inches wide on the best side. If the width is twenty inches, 
defects may be allowed that will be equal in injury to a knot five inches 



MICHIGAN INSPECTION. 11 

in diameter, or sap equal to six inches on the best side, but sap in no 
case to exceed one-half the surface on the poorest side. In this quality 
shall be included pieces ten feet long and not having more than their due 
proportion of defects; also all pieces six inches wide and more than one 
inch thick, with not more than two small, sound knots, or sap not more 
than one inch in width on one side. 

First Clear Strips. — Shall be six inches wide, one inch thick, and 
not less than twelve feet in length, and free from all imperfections. 

Second Clear Strips.— Shall be the length, width and thickness of 
First Clear, and may have two small, sound knots, or if no knots then sap 
equal to one inch in width on one edge of one side. 

Third Clear Strips.— Shall be of the width and thickness of First 
Clear Strips, and may have three small, sound knots, with sap one inch 
on one side; but if no more than three small, sound knots, then sap equal 
to two inches on one side may be allowed; to be free from rot, shake or 
split. First and Second Norway Strips of full width and thickness, and 
First and Second Clear White Pine Strips, ten feet in length, also First 
and Second Clear Strips rejected on account of thickness, and not less 
than five inches wide, shall be classed in this quality. 

Common Lumber. — Shall include all Boards, Planks, Scantling, 
Strips, Joist, Timber, and lumber not otherwise defined, which is not as 
good as Third Clear, but is generally of a sound character, well manufac- 
tured, of full thickness, and free from large, loose knots and bad shakes, 
that show on both sides of the piece. Scantling, Joist and Timber must 
be free from imperfections which so weaken the piece that it cannot be 
used for substantial building purposes. Scantling, Joist and Timber made 
from worm eaten logs, and pieces with a small streak of rot, when not so 
badly damaged as to render the same unfit for ordinary uses of common 
lumber, shall belong to this quality. One straight split shall be allowed, 
provided it does not exceed one-quarter the length of the piece. Pieces 
that have not more than two auger holes, which are placed near the end 
of the piece, shall be allowed in this quality, provided they are measured 
in lengths of even number of feet between said auger holes, and conform 
in all other respects to the requirements of this quality. No lumber 
under ten feet in length shall be considered as merchantable. 

Shipping Culls.— Shall constitute the lowest grade of merchantable 
lumber, and shall include all lumber not as good as common, which can 
be used for ordinary purposes without waste of more than one-half. 

Mill Culls. — Shall include all lumber not as good as Shipping Culls. 
A board or plank over twelve inches in width, of which one end shall be 
wider than the other, shall be measured at a point one-third its length 
from the narrow end, to determine its width, and all such boards or plank 
less than twelve inches in width shall be measured at the narrow end. 



SAGINAW INSPECTION. 



All lumber over ten feet, up to and including twenty feet, shall be meas- 
ured in lengths of even number of feet, and all over twenty feet long, each 
additional foot shall be counted, unless otherwise agreed between buyer 
and seller. No fractional part of a square foot shall be counted except in 
the measurement of joist, scantling or timber. 

Sec. 11.— Merchantable lumber may be measured and inspected in 
either of the three following classes, viz : The first class shall be an in- 
spection of the lumber in the five qualities aforesaid. 

The second class shall be an inspection of the lumber in three classes, 
of which the first, second and third class shall form one, which shall be 
denominated Uppers, and the other two shall be Common and Shipping 
Culls as aforesaid. 

The third class of inspection shall be in one quality which shall include 
the five qualities first mentioned, and shall be denominated Straight 
Measure. 



SAGINAW INSPECTION. 



While the preceding chapter reproduces the enacted law which for three 
or four years prescribed what should be the rule of inspection in the 
state of Michigan, it is an undeniable fact that Saginaw was a law unto 
itself, and while ostensibly working under the provisions of the written 
law, the inspection of that section was in reality unchanged from preced- 
ing systems, to which customs the inspectors mainly adhere to-day. 

The same designations of Good, or Uppers, Selects, Common and Culls 
are retained, or lumber is sold log run (mill culls out) as prescribed in 
the last section of the defunct law. The main difference between the old 
Michigan law and Saginaw Inspection proper, is in the former being more 
in favor of the seller, while the latter is in favor of the purchaser of lum- 
ber, and the difference is confined to the higher grades. 

The difference may be noted as follows: In the three uppers the Albany 
rule is more nearly adhered to. 

First Clear. — Is not less than eight inches in width, and is free from 
imperfections, the term Clear implying freedom from defects. 

Second Clear.— Not less than eight inches in width, at which it must 
be so nearly perfect as to fall but a trifle short of First Clear. As the 
width increases, a larger range of defects may be allowed, so that at twelve 
inches wide, a piece may have two knots of one inch diameter, or two 
narrow saps on one side; at sixteen inches wide, especially if the piece is 
more than one inch thick, two knots may be allowed, or one knot and 
one sap not over one and one-half inches in width. At twenty inches in 



SAGINAW INSPECTION. 



width the two Knots may oe larger, or the saps may widen to one and 
one-half inches. 

Third Clear.— In supposed to admit of three defects, but up to ten 
inches, knots should not exceed three-quarters of an inch in diameter, 
or sap not exceed three-quarters of an inch on one side. With increas- 
ing width knots may increase to three in number, not exceeding in size 
one inch each, or sap equal to one and a half inches in width on two 
edges of one side ; with narrower saps a small knot showing on the face 
side might be allowed ; but as a rule the three upper grades demand one 
perfect face. As in all other markets, the inspector is supposed to exer- 
cise a wide range of judgment in the inspection of the three uppers. A 
plank two inches thick and thirty inches wide will admit of a more lenient 
judgment, as regards defects in size and number, than a piece of half 
that size or of one inch thick. 

A piece of soft cork pine, of free grain and generally handsome ap- 
pearance, must not be judged with equal harshness with a piece of glassy 
texture, tough grain and unfavorable appearance. 

An experienced inspector will in all cases judge of a piece of lumber 
from the standpoint of the location of its defects, and the general utility 
of the piece. While not more than three defects should as a rule be in- 
cluded in the three upper grades, no one would deny that a wide plank 
with even five knots located near one side, or even some of these show- 
ing through to the face, but where perhaps four-fifths of the plank is 
" clear as a hound's tooth," is deserving of classification in this grade. In 
reality, the inspection of lumber in uppers consists in defining what con- 
stitutes Third Clear, as, in practice, First and Second Clear is ignored, 
and the number and character of the defects which may be passed in 
Third Clear, determines the character of the Three Uppers. But in Sagi- 
naw and some other markets the term " Good " is used in designating 
the upper grades, and purchases are sometimes made in "Good," 
" Selects," " Fine Common," Common and Culls ; yet, unless these terms 
are specified, the quality " Good " in common use will include not only 
the Three Uppers, but as well the next grade below, or Selects. 

Selects.— This term allows of four defects in a piece of ^mber. Four 
knots the size of from a dime to a quarter of a dollar, according to the 
size of the piece, or two saps on one side which, twelve inches wide, 
should not exceed three inches in the aggregate, or embrace more than 
one-quarter the sap side, the heart side being the face. With increasing 
width the proportion of sap may increase, or with narrow saps, the face 
side may have some knots. The general description of this grade, however, 
is of a class of lumber which has defects, of such a character, as, while 
condemning it for the Three Uppers, yet mark it as suited for many or 
most uses to which the Three Uppers may be put ; the fact that it is usually 



14 SAGINAW INSPECTION. 



combined under the term Good, with the Three Uppers, showing it to 
be more nearly allied to them than to the lower grades. The dividing 
grades between the Three Uppers and Common was originally known as 
Fourths and the designations were Good, Fourths, Common and Culls. 
When, however, it became incorporated with the Three Uppers, and was 
included in that designation (as it has practically become) the grade 
Selects which had hitherto classed with the Common, was admitted to 
the code, and consisted of what had hitherto been looked upon as raising 
the Common to a higher standard of excellence. A board twelve inches 
wide with a perfect heart side, and the bright sap covering half or more 
of the sap side, would be a Select. 

Fine Common.— Also sometimes known as Select Common, or Select 
Box, or where the designation is thoroughly known, Box, is a grade of 
lumber suitable for finishing purposes, yet having too much sap on one 
side, or too many knots on the other, to admit its entry to the grade of 
Selects. Fine Common is usually taken from the lumber cut next to the 
outside of the log, sometimes known as sap boards, the general character 
of which is to give one face side, while the other- is largely covered with 
sap, which, if properly piled so as to dry without mould, is adapted to a 
large proportion of the finer work where one side only is exposed to view. 
With this point in mind the inspector will allow knots in this grade pro- 
portioned to the size of the piece. If the sap is narrow the face may have 
one or two small knots, but, except in wide lumber, the rule is observed 
"one side a face." Pieces below eight inches in width are seldom accepted 
in this grade, and at that width the defect is in sap, which may embrace 
not more than one-third the sap side and must not run on to the face 
side; or a board of that width may have a good sap side, nearly if not 
wholly clear of knots, and with or two small knots on the heart side. In 
larger pieces a board or plank having too many defects for the grade of 
Selects, and yet approaching almost to the requirements of that grade, is 
included in the Fine Common . A board sixteen inches wide, one inch thick, 
with five knots the size of one inch, and no other defect, would be classed 
with Fine Common. The same piece at one and one-half or two inches 
thick would probably by most inspectors be classed as Selects. Shaky 
lumber is not admitted in this or the upper grades. Fine Common is 
substantially the same as Chicago B Selects. 

Strips, First Clear.— Are six inches wide, and one inch thick, and 
free from all imperfections, and are known as clapboard or siding strips. 
The -term siding strips should not be confounded with "Sidings" lumber 
cut from the. side of a log, in distinction from the stock, or lumber cut 
from the square log. 

Strips, Second Clear.— Approaches A Flooring, Chicago yard grad- 
ing, $ix inch§s wide, one inch thick, and may have two small, sovtad. 



SAGINAW INSPECTION. 15 



knots, or if no knots, then sap equal to one inch in width on one edge of 
one side. 

Strips, Third Clear.— Nearest to B Flooring, Chicago yard grading. 
Six inches wide, one inch thick, and may have three small, sound knots, 
and upon one side in addition, sap equal to two inches in width. All strips 
in these three grades must be free from rot, split or shake. 

Norway Strips.— Answering to the description of First and Second 
Clear, and ten feet or more in length, are included in this grade when 
sold as Norway. 

Strips, Flooring and Fencing.— Include all strips not as good as 
Third Clear, yet free from rot and split. Flooring strips must be of full 
thickness and width, except where a narrower width is desired, when they 
may be of the uniform width of three, four or five inches. All knots in 
Flooring strips must be of a sound character. Fencing strips include all 
coarse grade strips not good enough for Flooring, and above the grade of 
Culls, or strips not up to the standard thickness, and their inspection is 
less rigid than the other grades. 

Common. — The term common includes all boards, plank, scantling, 
strips, joist, timber and lumber not otherwise defined, which does not 
come up to the standard of Select Box, but is of a generally sound char- 
acter, well manufactured, of full thickness, and free from large, loose 
knots, and bad shakes. Scantling, joist and timber must be free from 
knots or imperfections which involve or weaken the piece for substantial 
building purposes. "Worm holes and small rot streaks, in extent not 
materially to damage the piece for the uses in which its size is usually 
employed, belong to this quality. One straight split, not more than one 
quarter the length of the board, may be allowed. Auger holes (almost 
unknown in Saginaw) are to be excluded, by measuring in even feet be- 
tween the holes. No lumber under ten feet in length is considered as 
merchantable in this or the better grades. 

Shipping Culls.— Unsound knots, or knots which affect the strength 
of the piece, black or mouldy sap, unsound hearts, bad splits, badly sawed 
lumber in wedges or tarves (uneven edges), where the piece is yet avail, 
able for coarse use, and all lumber not up to the grade of common, is 
included in this grade. Anything poorer than shipping culls is not recog- 
nized in any market. 

Saginaw lumber, is always manufactured in twelve, fourteen and sixteen 
feet lengths (with an exceptional log of other lengths) in all grades, except 
dimension stuff, where lengths are cut to suit the sizes demanded, but 
the sidings from sueh logs are usually eut off t<? the twelve, fourteen and 
sixteen foot standard. 

The thicknesses of the Saginaw lumber, as usually cut, are one inch, one 
and a garter, one and a half and two inches, but with some three inch. 



CHICAGO CARGO INSPECTION. 



iu coarse plank for road or paving purposes, or in extra nice stock, for 
thick uppers or deals. All lumber is manufactured in parallel widths, and 
many mills employ cut-off tables for reducing all lengths to uniformity. 
The coarser grades are almost uniformly cut one inch thick, the better 
grades almost invariably in the one and one-half and two inch thicknesses. 



CHICAGO CARGO INSPECTION. 

Adopted by the Lumberman's Exchange. 



This may be termed a modification of the combined Albany and Saginaw 
Inspections. It is observed in the sale of cargoes on the Chicago whole- 
sale market. 

Section 1.— First Clear or White Pine Lumber shall be not less than 
twelve inches in width, and no imperfections allowed unless fourteen 
inches wide or upwards ; will then allow imperfections equal to sap, one 
inch on one side, extending the whole length of the piece, on pieces four- 
teen inches wide and well manufactured, but the face side must be per- 
fect ; as width increases, will allow larger imperfections in proportion to 
the width, bnt not imperfections enough to decrease the value below the 
above described piece. 

See. 2. — Second Clear White Pine Lumber shall be not less than ten 
inches wide and perfect up to eleven inches in width ; will then allow 
imperfections equal to sap one inch on one side of the whole length of 
the piece, if well manufactured ; as width increases, will allow other and 
larger imperfections in proportion to the width, but not imperfections 
enough to decrease the value below the above described piece. 

Sec. 3. — Third Clear White Pine Lumber shall be not less than nine 
inches in width, and perfect up to ten inches ; will then allow imperfec- 
tions equal to sap, one inch on one side of the whole length of the piece, 
if well manufactured. The imperfections of this quality shall not exceed 
100 per cent, over those allowed in Second Clear. 

Sec. 4.— Select White Pine Lumber shall include all lumber poorer in 
quality than Third Clear, the imperfections of which shall not exceed 100 
per cent, over those allowed in Third Clear. , 

Sec. 5.— Clear White Pine Flooring shall be one inch thick, six inches 
wide, and no imperfections. 

Sec. 6 Second Clear White Pine Flooring shall be in thickness and 

width same as Clear Flooring, and will allow of one small knot or sap 
three-quarters of an inch on one side, with clear face. 

iSec, 7,— Common White Pine Flooring shall be of the width and, thick.- 



CHICAGO CARGO INSPECTION. 17 

ness of First or Second Clear Flooring, and may have three small, sound 
knots, with sap one inch on one side, but if less than three knots, then 
sap equal to two inches on one side, and shall be free from rot, splits and 
shakes. Four inch flooring strips, equal in quality to First and Second 
Clear Flooring, shall be classed as Common six inch Flooring. 

Sec. 8. — Common Pine Lumber includes all boards, plank, joists, 
scantling, timber, fencing, and four inch strips that are of generally 
sound character, well manufactured, and not included in the foregoing 
qualities. Boards and plank should be square-edged, full thickness, and 
have no large, loose knots or bad shakes. In wide boards, twelve inches 
and over, will allow a straight split one-sixth the length of the piece, when 
otherwise sound. Fencing should be of good, sound character — pieces 
that will not break easily, six inches wide and one inch thick. Scantling, 
joist and timber should not have imperfections that would weaken the 
piece so that it cannot be used for substantial building piirposes, and be 
uniform in width and thickness. Lumber should be measured at the 
small end, and if much wane on the piece, reasonable allowance made 
for it. Norway Pine Lumber shall be classed as common lumber, unless 
otherwise agreed iipon. Cargoes of piece stuff or timber containing over 
twenty-five per cent. Norway, shall not be considered standard, and all 
edge boards and inch lumber in cargoes of piece stuff shall be subject to 
special agreement. 

Sec. 9.— All badly stained white pine lumber, that is otherwise better 
than Common, shall be inspected into a lower grade than when bright 
and free from stain. 

Sec. 1 O.— All lumber described in the foregoing rules of Inspection 
shall be not less than one inch in thickness, and not less than twelve feet 
long. 

Sec. 11.— Culls. A quality that cannot be received into any of the 
foregoing, consisting of even lengths, of ten feet and upwards, and so 
imperfect as to be unfit for ordinary uses without waste. 

Mill Ctills.— Refuse lumber. 

Sec. 12.— All cargoes sold under straight measure shall consist of lum- 
ber twelve feet and over ; and where, by imperfection of manufacture, 
such lumber is reduced in grade so as not to answer the purpose for 
which it was intended, it shall be measured at only one-half the amount 
in the piece for which it was intended. And all pieces containing auger 
holes, it fourteen feet in length and over, and bored only at the ends, shall 
be measured in full, excluding two feet in length of the piece ; if bored in 
the center, it shall be measured for only one-half the amount in the piece. 
All lumber less than twelve feet to be subject for special contract between 
the parties. Mill Culls excluded in all cases. All boards and strips to 
be at least one inch thick; joists or scantling two or three inches thick.' 



CHICAGO OAKGO INSPECTION. 



Sec. 13.— Lath — Number One — should be four feet (no more, or less), 
in length ; not less than three-eighths of an inch thick, and one and one- 
half inches wide, free from shakes, rot, wane, or worm-holes. 

Number Two — same length as No. 1, may be less than three-eighths of 
an inch thick, and must be not less than one and one-quarter inches wide, 
will admit of wane and worm-holes not to exceed ten pieces in a bundle 
of one hundred. 

Culls — All that will not pass in the above named qualities. 

Shingles — All pine and cedar shingles shall be not less than sixteen 
inches in length, and three-eighths inch thick at the butt, and shall be 
classed and known as follows : 

The first grade is to be denominated Clear, and to consist of shingles not 
less than three inches in width, all to be absolutely perfect. 

The second grade is to be denominated Extra A, and this shall consist of 
shingles not less than three inches wide, and with the butts clear for ten 
inches of the length. 

The third grade to be denominated Standard A, and to be not less than 
eight inches clear from the butt, and not less than three inches Avide. 

The fotvrth grade to be denominated Shaded A, the shingles to be clear 
for a distance of not less than five inches from the butt. 

The fifth grade to be denominated No. 1, and to include everything poorer 
than Shaded A, but to be made of sound timber, with no unsound knots 
in the butt. 

Culls — Are a quality manufactured from winding, worm-eaten, shaky or 
dry-rot timber, badly manufactured or less than sixteen inches in length. 

It is recommended that one-quarter thousand bunches be packed in 
bands twenty inches in length, with twenty-five courses ; one-half thou- 
sand bunches in twenty-five inch bands with forty courses. Shingles shall 
always be full count, and pay shall be collected only for the number of 
shingles actually delivered, regardless of the pretended number contained 
in each package or bundle ; or, in other words, there shall be exacted in 
every instance for one thousand shingles, the equivalent of one thousand 
pieces four inches wide. 

These rules, for the grading of shingles, were adopted by the Lumbei'- 
man's Exchange, April 12, 1880. 



CHICAGO YARD GRADING. 



CHICAGO YARD GRADING. 



The system of grades prevailing among the yards of Chicago, is a most 
difficult thing to describe, yet a general similarity of ideas is supposed to 
prevail among all dealers. We therefore endeavor to give the general 
laws governing their grading. 

First Clear.— Shall be not less than twelve inches in width and twelve 
feet long (except that in some yards ten foot pieces are admitted in the 
xipper grades, the majority adhering to the twelve foot standard), and with 
no imperfections, unless the piece is fourteen inches or over in width ; will 
then allow imperfections equal to sap one inch on one side, extending the 
whole length of the piece, but the face must be perfect. As the width in- 
creases, will allow larger imperfections in proportion to the width. 

Second Clear. — Shall be not less than ten inches wide, and must be 
perfect up to eleven inches. Above eleven inches, imperfections may be 
allowed equal to sap one inch on one side of the whole length of the 
piece, if well manufactured. "With increasing width will allow other and 
larger imperfections in proportion to the width, but not imperfections 
enough to decrease its value beyond the standard of a twelve inch piece 
of above description. 

Third Clear. — Shall be not less than twelve inches in width (except as 
below), and perfect up to ten inches ; will then allow imperfections equal 
to sap one inch on one side of the whole length of the piece, if well manu- 
factured. This grade, however, is subject to modification in that while it 
is mainly the equivalent of Albany Thirds and Selects, it may generally 
be found to combine the grades of A Box, A Stock and eight-inch A, 
varying from standard inspection by allowing a minimum width of nine 
inches and a length of twelve feet. In yard grading, knots as big as a 
half dollar may be alloAved in a fair sized piece, as to general location 
and effect upon the use of the board. Smaller knots, as high as five in 
number, or bright sap on each edge of one side, two inches in width. In 
narrow boards, one face must be nearly perfect except eight inch A, where 
the general rule applies, modified by the width. A Stocks, usually refers 
to twelve inch, but may apply to ten inch Stocks when so specified. 

B Sox and A. Stocks. — Usually range in price with Third Clear. Eight 

inch A, although of the same general quality, ranges from $3 to $5 lower 

in price. Ten inch Stocks in all grades usually range $2 below twelve inch. 

,4 Selects, B Stock, Eight inch A and 22.— These are all of .about 



20 CHICAGO YARD GRADING. 



one grade, and are taken from Third Clear and Selects, which may be 
called "line boards, between the two grades. 

A Select. — Is properly a grade below, although some claim to make 
it equal to Third Clear. In this grade, some yards will allow shake, 
where the use and general value of the piece is not seriously impaired 
thereby. As a rule, however, no shake is admitted. Knots may be al- 
lowed according to size of board and location of knots, but seldom both 
knots and shake. Widths may run from eight inch upward. Sap may 
be allowed equal to two inches on one side of a nine inch piece, increas- 
ing with the width. The term " Box" is applied to all grades, where the 
width makes the lumber suitable for cornice and shelving, or wagon-box 
boards, from which latter the Chicago use of the term is derived. 
Sample boards may be described as follows : A board twelve feet long, 
' twelve inches wide, had one knot the size of a dime, one cat-face knot, 
two saps on one side, of which one is narrow, running the whole length, 
the other three inches at one end, tapering out at four feet. Some call 
this a fair, others a good, A Select. 

B Box. — Is thirteen inches wide and over. A board seventeen inches 
wide, sixteen feet long, with twelve medium knots ; another sixteen inches 
wide, two saps of two inches each on one side, and ten small knots on the 
other, were seen in a pile of B Box, but were criticised by other graders. 

B Stock. — Is usually twelve inch, but may include ten inch stocks. 
Eight inch B is of parallel width (seven and one-half to nine) up to 
grade, in proportion to width. 

B Select. — In general character is a sap board ; if narrow, one side may 
be well covered with sap, no knots on the face. Such a board may be from 
seven to ten inches. At ten to fourteen inches, some knots and less sap. 
This class makes good " one side " lumber for finishing boards, and in gen- 
eral, knots may be allowed of a character not to injure the board for fin- 
ishing purposes or for cutting up. A sample board seven inches wide 
had bright nearly covering one side, the other a face. Another of thir- 
teen inches had but four inches of meat on the sap side, the sap came 
through to the face, and there were two small knots on the face. Another 
of nine inches had sap covering one end for five feet, sap ran slightly on 
to the face of the board. B Selects on wider pieces may combine some 
considerable shake at the ends, if the center is good, or on center if the 
ends are good. 

The sap in this grade should be judged in the matter of color by its 
surroundings. While a black sap is scarcely allowable, a simple discol- 
oration will not condemn the piece if all other requisites are present. A 
piece of fair width with one clean face to work would admit of a blacker 
sap on the outside of cut. In this grade also may be admitted a class of soft 
wide lumber, with large or even loose knots, where the cuts between the 



CHICAGO YARD GRADING. 21 

knots may give a large proportion of finishing lumber. Such lumber is 
often found where the rules of regular and strict inspection would con- 
demn a piece to the grade of cull, yet where the piece is of especial value 
for cutting up. This grade is substantially the same as the Fine Common 
of the Saginaw Valley. 

Common. — All good sound lumber, ten feet long and upwards, how- 
ever knotty, if the knots are tight and sound and not coarse enough to 
weaken the board, are included in this grade. Also sap boards, when the 
sap is fairly bright. Boards free from rot and shake, which involve their 
usefulness, are common boards. Lumber which will make a water-tight 
roof is in all markets included in this grade. Splits or Checks, if straight 
and not of an extent or nature to materially injure the board, are gener- 
ally allowable. Bad splits and checks, especially when not straight, will 
always condemn a board of any grade to a lower one, according to the 
effect upon its usefulness. The same is true of waney edges. The lum- 
ber must be of full standard thickness and well manufactured. Worm- 
holes may be permitted in this grade in number and character propor- 
tioned to the size of the piece, but as a rule, wormy lumber should be 
excluded as Culls. Custom has allowed common plank, measuring one 
and seven-eighths inch thick, to be measured as if full two inch. A few 
worm-holes are not objectionable in dimension stuff, unless enough in 
number to weaken the piece, or of a generally unsightly character. 

C Box. — Is a grade of thirteen inches wide and over, with small, sound 
knots. 

D Box. — Is simply good, wide Common. 

Neither of these last two pretend to any grading above Common, except 
that their widths adapt them to special uses. 

Stock Boards. — A class of lumber sawed of a uniform width of ten, 
twelve and fourteen inches. It is graded the same as other lumber, but 
its uniformity marks it as of superior utility for ripping into flooring, 
siding etc., or for manufacturers requiring large quantities of certain 
widths for special work. The lower grades are mainly used as barn 
boards or for coarse sheathing, and other similar purposes. 

Other Varieties. — Norway mixed with other lumber uniformly classes 
as common; but when in lots by itself, may be graded in a manner sim- 
ilar to white pine, the designation "Norway" indicating its distinctness 
from white pine. 

Flooring, siding and ceiling are graded according to the general rules 
applying to wider lumber, modified to suit the decreased width, but are 
measured as the piece was in the rough. 

First and Second Clear Strips and Siding. — No. 1 is perfect in 
thickness, width and quality. No. 2 will allow of a narrow, bright sap on 
one side, or one or two small sound knots. The two are usually combined. 



CHICAGO YARD GRADING. 



A, or First Common.— It free from sap may have two or three small 
sound knots, or bright sap one-half or three-quarters inch. 

B, or Second Common.— May have three or four medium size sound 
knots, or bright sap of one to one and a quarter inch. 

C, or Third Common.— May have two to six medium knots, or two 
to three inches of sap, or both sap and knots to equal these, 

Flooring, A or First. — Should have one face nearly clear, with but 
one or two small, sound knots; the other may have more knots or sap. 

B, or Second. — May have two to four sound, medium knots, and bright 
sap equal to one or one and a quarter inches. 

C, or Tliird.—'WiM allow of three to six small, sound knots, or one 
and a half to two inches bright sap. 

Fencing Flooring.— Is good, common flooring from selected fencing, 
and may have a large number of small, sound knots, but the general 
character of the piece is such as to make a good floor, practically free ' 
from shake and loose knots. 

Fencing, No. 1 or Common.— Sound knots, not to weaken the 
piece; may have considerable sap. No. 2: black sap, coarse knots, shaky 
or otherwise defective, yet not so as to prevent its use as coarse fencing. 
Four inch lumber of any grade should have one-third less imperfections 
than is allowed, on six-inch widths. Norway of the same general quality 
is scrutinized much more closely than white pine. 

Deck Plank. — Is lumber suitable for decking for vessels, and is usu- 
ally three, four, five and six inches wide, and three to four inches thick, 
and the greater the length the more valuable is it considered. No lot 
averaging under twenty-five to thirty feet in length is properly classed 
as decking. This should be almost wholly free from sap, must be free 
from shake, but may have any reasonable number of small, sound, red 
knots. It is sometimes used two and a half inches in thickness. 

Culls.— Unsound lumber, loose knots, bad, black knots, or large, coarse 
knots, loose or shaky hearts, unedged or waney and badly shaky lumber, 
black sap stain, especially if mouldy. All wormy lumber, rotten streaks, 
or ends badly manufactured as to thickness, wedge boards or tarved lum- 
ber (thick on one edge and thin on the other), or boards which won't hold 
water. All the above properly belong in Culls, and when unfit to be used 
as roofing to nail shingles on, or is generally unsightly in appearance, it 
is known as " Scoots," Refuse, or Mill-Culls, and has no quotable value. 

Lengths.— In some yards ten feet is the standard of length, and all 
lumber is measured in even figures of ten, twelve, fourteen, sixteen and 
eighteen feet; odd lengths are unknown unless in special orders and in 
lumber of over twenty feet. Until within the last two years twelve feet 
was the minimum of length in a merchantable piece of lumber, and most 
yards yet adhere to this rule. All lumber of less than ten feet is unsal- 



CHICAGO YARD GRADING. 23 



able, except when in quantities, as it is often found in irregular lengths 
at gang saw- mills, when it is known as " clips." This is sometimes sorted 
as to quality, but has no classification; it is usually sold as a bulk, either 
by the pile or by straight measure, and is often of a desirable character 
for builders. 

Widths and Thickness. — The wider a board is the more latitude is 
allowed for defects. This remark applies generally to lengths, widths 
and thickness, although as a rule, unless a board holds plump to an in- 
tended thickness, it is measured to the next standard below. In dimen- 
sion, or bill stuff such as joist, scantling or timber, a variance in thick- 
ness is almost universally allowed by dealers and consumers, although 
strict rules of inspection demand full sizes in all respects. 

In wholesale markets a board measuring a half inch or more over a 
certain width is measured at the next lower number. In retailing, how- 
ever, the half inch is properly counted, while in some markets the " give 
and take" principle is observed; that is, if a full half inch or over, it is 
called at the next higher figure; if not full half inch it is called back to 
the last full figure. 



The following table shows the average weights obtained in the actual 
shipment from Chicago of 20,000,000 feet of pine lumber, during an entire 
season : 

POUNDS. 

1, Vy& and 1%-ineh, surfaced one side 2,102 

The same, surfaced two sides 2.068 

2-inch, surfaced one side 2.200 

White pine flooring, dressed and matched 1,890 

Hard pine flooring 2,306 

Ship lap, 8-inch 1,711 

Ship lap, 10 inch 1 ,725 

Ship lap, 12-inch 1,855 

White pine, %-inch ceiling 786 

Hard pine %-inch ceiling 950 

Siding 805 

Piece stuff, rough 2,560 

Piece stuff, surfaced one side and one edge 2,210 

Thin clear, surfaced one side 1 ,380 

% ceiling 1 ,120 

Rough boards 2,524 

Hard pine fencing 2,910 

4-inch flooring, dressed and matched 1,793 

6-inch fencing 2,433 

Pine shingles 248 

Cedar shingles 203 

Dry lath 60S 



M CHICAGO HARDWOOD INSPECTION. 



CHICAGO HARDWOOD INSPECTION. 



The Chicago rules of Hardwood Inspection do not materially differ from 
those in vogue in other localities, although, as in the case with pine, there 
are many points which are the subject simply of judgment, and cannot 
be defined even in conversation, inasmuch as scarcely any two pieces of 
lumber are exactly alike, and each piece must be the subject of an indi- 
vidual and distinct opinion. The ensuing description has been carefully 
revised by the leading dealers in hardwood in Chicago, and meets their 
approval as laying down the general rules and practices of this market. 
The forest pi-oducts embraced in the term hardwood, as known to the 
trade here, include Poplar or Whitewood, White Ash, White, Eed and 
Burr Oak, Hickory, Black Walnut, Cherry, Butternut, Hard Maple, Soft 
Maple, Basswood, Hickory or Rock Elm, Sycamore, Sweet Gum. Chestnut. 
Red Cedar, and Southern or Yellow Pine. 
POPLAR. 
Poplar should be in even lengths of twelve, fourteen or sixteen feet; 
anything shorter must be very good, and submit to an allowance in price. 
The principal thicknesses are % inch, % inch, % inch, 1 inch, 1%, 1%, 2, 
2}£, 3, 4, 5 and 6 inch. Squared should be 4x4, 5x5, 6x6, 7x7, 8x8, 9x9 and 
10x10, and should in all cases be y s inch over these inches, to allow for 
shrinkage in drying; J£ and %-inch are special sizes. 

The Inspection grades are Clear or No. 1; Second Clear or No. 2; Com- 
mon or No. 3; and Culls. 

First Clear, or No. 1 . — Must be twelve inches or more in width, and 
free from all defects. The squared pieces are exempt frcm this rule only 
as to width. Plank from 1% inches in thickness may be of a width of ten 
inches. Bright sap not over two inches would be allowed in this grade. 
Second Clear, or No. 2. — May be eight inches wide and upward, but 
at ten inches may have from one to three sound knots. If a piece is wide, 
a little white sap may be allowed on one side. All narrow, perfect pieces 
of eight inches are placed in this class. Defects are counted upon the 
basis of a knot the size of an English walnut (about 1% inch diameter), 
with an allowance of more defects in proportion to increased width. 
Splits will always drop a board into the grade below. 

Common, or No. 3.— May be of any width or thickness. Will allow 
of discolored sap, sound knots, beyond those described in No. 2, and wide 
saps. In narrow pieces, not more than three knots will be allowed. De- 



CHICAGO HARDWOOD INSPECTION. 



fects may increase in number and extent as the width increases, but all 
lumber must be sound. 

Culls.— All widths and sizes having more defects than described in 
Common, whether in the number or character of the knots, discolored 
sap, badly checked, and generally such lumber as is unfit for ordinary 
purposes without waste. 

WHITE ASH. 

White Ash should be in lengths of twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet, and 
the usual thicknesses are 1, 1%, 1%, 2, 2%, 8, 3}£ and 4 inches. It is in- 
spected in Nos. 1 and 2 combined, and Cull, price being made as to char- 
acter or preponderance of the better or poorer. Sap is not considered a 
material injury. Ash lumber is to be eight inches wide and over; at 
eight inches defects may be allowed equal to two small hard knots, 1% 
inch being taken as a standard. Must be free from hearts and dry 
rot. All sizes must be % plump, or will be reduced in grade and price. 
Wagon tongues should be cut from tough timber, butt logs, and be free 
from defects of any kind, especially cross grain; length, twelve feet; size, 
2x4 at one end by 4x4 at the other, and 2}£x4}£ at one end by 4y z square, 
plump, at the other. Splits reduce one grade. 

Cull Ash.— Includes all defective lumber, hearts, shakes, knots be- 
yond standard, dead or doty timber, and defective sawing. 

Ash Flooring. — Should be four and six inches wide, with one face 
and two edge3 clear; thickness, 1 and 1% inches; lengths, twelve, four- 
teen and sixteen feet. 

WHITE AND BURR OAK. 

Lengths should be twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet. Sizes 1, 1}|, 1%, 
2, 2%, 3,3%, 4 and 4% inches. Shorter lengths may be allowed, but are 
subject to an allowance in price. 

It is inspected as Clear, Second Clear, Common, Culls, and Wagon 
Stock. Some yards do not make the grade of Second Clear, that grade 
enriching the Common. 

Clear.— Must be eight inches wide and over, free from all defects. 

Second Clear. — At eight inches wide will allow from one to three 
small sound knots, of the 1J4 inch standard, or a little bright sap. No 
other defects are allowed in this grade but their extent may increase with 
the size of the piece. Splits always reduce one grade in oak as well as in 
other hardwoods. 

Common.— Must be free from shake and worm holes; may have 
sound heart in thick plank. All knots must be sound. 

Culls. — Bad heart plank, wormy or generally unsound lumber. 

Oak Flooring. — Should be four and six inches wide, with one face 
and two edges clear; thickness 1 and \% inches; lengths, twelve, four- 
teen and sixteen feet. 



26 CHICAGO HARDWOOD INSPECTION. 



OAK WAGON STOCK. 

Holsters. — Should be four feet and four feet six inches, or the multiples 
thereof in length. The sizes run 3x4, 3^x4j^,3J4x5 and 4x5. 

Reaches. — Require plump thickness, 2x4 and %y 2 x4y 2 . Lengths, eight, 
ten and twelve feet, clear of imperfections. 

Harrotv Timber.— Thickness, 2}£x23£ and 3x3 plump. Lengths may- 
be five, ten, twelve and fourteen feet. Must be clear of imperfections. 

All stock should be sawed one-eighth plump, and bolsters should allow 
three inches for check in seasoning. 

HICKORY WAGON STOCK. 

Hickory may be classed as Boards, Plank and Axles. 

Boards and Plaiik. — Are inspected as First and Second Clear, in one 
grade. 

The lengths are ten, twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet ; the thicknesses, 
1, li£, 1%. 3, 2^, 3 and 4 inches. 

The combined grade will not admit of more than one or two small, 
sound knots of the one and one-fourth inch standard, and no other imper- 
fections. Sap is excluded from yard piling and grading from its liability 
to powder-post in seasoning. 

Axles.— Lengths are six and twelve feet. Sizes, 3x4, 3%x4%, 4x5, 4x6, 
4} 2 x6, and 5x6. Must be sawed plump, one-eighth inch full, and perfect 
in all respects. 

Culls. — All lumber not up to the preceding grades. 

Hickory should never be cut between the first of February and first of 
September, while the sap is rising. 

BLACK WALNUT. 

Lengths may run twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet, but as short as eight 
feet is taken if otherwise up to grade, with due allowance as to price. 
The usual thicknesses are %, 1, \y A , 1%, 2, 2^, 3, 4 and 5 inches. Width 
is a desirable point in walnut. 

It is handled in numbers one and two combined. 

No. 1. — Must be not less than eight inches in width, and must be free 
from all defects. 

No. 2. — Must be not less than seven inches wide, and at seven inches 
may have a little sap, or two small knots of not over one inch standard. 
Defects may increase with the width in proportion. 

Common.— All not up to the standard of number two, but available in 
its full size without waste. 

Culls.— Any width, not good enough for common, in which not less 
than one-half the piece is fit for use without waste. 

Walnut Flooring.— Is one inch in thickness and four and six inches 



CHICAGO HARDWOOD INSPECTION. 27 

in width. The six inches allows for splitting into narrower, when dressed, 
without the risk of warping in seasoning, which Avould destroy the value 
of narrower sawed stock. Must have one face and tAvo edges clear. 

Neivels. — Should be cut outside the heart, to scpiare five, six, seven, 
eight and nine inches Avhen seasoned. Their length should be four feet or 
the multiples thereof, and they must be free from all defects ; curls rightly 
located are not considered defects. 

Balusters. — Should be cut exactly square, 2x2, 2^x2^, H 1 ^}^, 3x3 
and 4x4, and a full one-sixteenth plump. Lengths, thirty and thirty-two 
inches. Must be free from all defects, especially sap and shake. 

Cotmter Tops. — Are twelve, fourteen, sixteen and eighteen feet in 
length, twenty inches and oA r er in width, and strictly clear. The longer 
lengths are the most desirable. 

In fourteen and sixteen feet lumber, ends may be cut where a twelve 
foot length can be obtained. 

CHERRY. 

The inspection is in grades of Firsts and Seconds, and is the same as in 
Walnut, and the same rules apply. Thicknesses may be 1, 1%, l l 2 , 2, 2 a o, 
3, 4 and 5 inches. Lengths, twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet. Widths, eight 
inches and over. Cherry flooring, newels and balusters same as Walnut. 

BUTTERNUT. 

Same as Walnut and Cherry, in grades of Firsts and Seconds. Lengths, 
twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet. Thicknesses, 1, 1%, Vfa, 2, 2% and 3 
inch. Widths, eight inches and over. 

HARD MAPLE. 

Is inspected in a combined grade of Firsts and Seconds. 

Lengths may run twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet. Thicknesses, 1, \%, 
V&, 2, 2%, 3, 4 and 4}£ inches. It must be not less than eight inches 
"wide, at which one small {1% inch) sound knot may be alloAved, but no 
other defects in the first grade. Increased defects* may be allowed with 
increased widths, if located so as not to injure the cutting of sizes for 
Avhich each thickness is adapted. Some yards divide into Clear, Common 
and Culls. The Clear must be ten inches and over, and free from all im- 
perfections. Splits will reduce one grade in each quality. 

Common,.— Maybe from six inches upAvard, Avith imperfections Avhich 
will not render the piece unavailable for ordinary uses without Avaste. 
Not over two or three small knots, Avithout shake, AA'ill be alloAved in the 
grade. 

Culls.— Include all heart shakes, badly saAved or other defects, fi-om 
which the piece is not good enough for common, but in Avhich one-half 
the piece, will Avork up Avithout waste. 



CHICAGO HARDWOOD INSPECTION. 



Flooring should be cut from the outside of the log from the white tim- 
ber, the red timber of the heart wood, being less valuable, and should be 
cut in four and six inch widths, 1 and 1% inch thickness, mostly one inch. 

SOFT MAPLE. 

Is but little in demand, but Inspection is the same as in Hard Maple. 

BASSWOOD. 

Basswood is used in lengths of twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet. Thick- 
nesses are 1, 1J£, 1}£ and 2 inches, the demand being mostly for one inch. 
Widths may be eight inches and upward. Edges should be square, as in 
Pine. It is inspected in the two grades of Good and Cull. 

Good. — Includes all perfect lumber free from shake, black knots and 
hearts. Small sound knots, from one to five in number, do not condemn 
it for this grade. 

Culls. — Include all lumber not good enough for the preceding grade. 
As in Pine, a board which will not work at least one-half its size without 
waste, is a mill cull, and has no market value. An inordinate number of 
knots will, in basswood, condemn a piece to the grade of culls. 

HICKORY. 

Hickory or Rock Elm is used in lengths of twelve, fourteen and sixteen 
feet, and in thicknesses of 1, 1%, Vfa and 2 inches. The inspection is in 
Good and Culls. 

Good. — Comprises lumber free from hearts and shakes ; small, sound 
knots from one to five in number, do not condemn it. 

Culls. — Comprise all below the grade of good, when at least one-half 
the piece will work without waste. 

SYCAMORE. 
Same as Hickory or Rock Elm. 

SWEET GUM. 

Is inspected the same as Black Walnut. Lengths, twelve, fourteen and 
sixteen feet ; thicknesses, 1, l x 4 and l 1 ^ inches. The demand is mostly for 
one inch, eight inches wide and over. 

CHESTNUT AND CEDAR. 

Same as Sweet Gum and Black Walnut. 

SOUTHERN OR YELLOW PINE. 

In Southern or Yellow Pine this market demands only the best quality, 
the plentifulness and cheapness of White Pine effectually excluding all 
of the coarser grades of Yellow Pine. Our remarks, therefore, apply to 



ST. LOUIS INSPECTION. 



the better qualities of Georgia and Florida Pine, or lumber from sections 
supplying the same character of timber. 

It is inspected as First and Second Clear, in thicknesses of 1, 1%, 1% 
and 2 inches. The combined grade will admit of one or two small, sound 
knots; must be free from other defects. Flooring Strips are of four and 
six inches width, with one face and two edges clear. 

The Hardwood Inspection of Chicago differs but little from that in vogue 
in other localities. Nearly every description of Hardwood is sold in bulk 
as Merchantable, as well as by Inspection. In this case the mill culls are 
thrown out, and the price is made according to the quality of the log 
run. Large quantities of Walnut, Maple, Oak, Ash, Basswood and Hick- 
ory are sold in this way. The sizes, however, should be cut as specified 
under their respective heads. 



ST. LOUIS INSPECTION. 



In White Pine and Hardwood inspection the customs of St. Louis are 
almost identical with those of Chicago, so that it is unnecessary to repeat 
them. Reference may therefore, upon these points, be made to the chap- 
ters on Chicago Gradings or Inspection. Missouri and more southern 
states, however, ship large quantities of Yellow or Pitch Pine, long leaf, 
to the St. Louis market, and the customs prevailing at that point are sub- 
stantially the same, as regards inspection, as those applying to the same 
timber at other points. 

YELLOW PINE. 

Yellow Pine Boards are divided into Clear or First Rate, Second Rate, 
Third Rate and Culls. 

Clear.— Must be clear, free from all defects; in lengths of twelve, four- 
teen and sixteen feet, and the thickness one and one-sixteenth inch. 
Longer even lengths and greater thickness is allowed, but is usually or- 
dered for special purposes when needed. 

Second Rate.— Has one clear face, or may have two defective faces ; 
first, when the defects are limited to a bright sap, not over one inch in 
width on one or both edges, but without wane; or, second, when the piece 
has one blue edge or one waney edge, neither being over one inch in width; 
in both cases the faces being in all other respects clear, with the exception 
of one or two sound knots, not over one-half inch in diameter, which 
may show through the piece. 

Third Rate,— A grade having more defects than described in Second 



ST. LOUIS INSPECTION. 



Rate, but free from shakes, large unsound knots or rot. Lumber of le is 
than standard thickness is included in this grade. 
Culls— Large unsound knots, shakes or rot. 

FOUR INCH STRIPS. 

Are graded as Clear or First Rate, Second Rate, Third Rate and Culls. 
Lengths to be twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet; thickness one and one- 
sixteenth inch, width four inches full. 

Clear or First Mate. — Must be clear, as in wider lumber, and perfect 
in length, width and thickness. 

Second Rate. — Either one perfect face or both faces being in all re- 
spects clear, except that it may have two sound knots of not over one-half 
inch in diameter, which may show through to both sides. 

Third Rate. — Will allow of more defects than Second Rate, but free 
from shake, large unsound knots or rot. Boards below the' standard in 
thickness are included in this grade. 

Culls. — Include all large unsound knots, shakes or rot. 

SIX LNCH STRIPS. 

Are graded as Clear, or First Rate, Second Rate and Culls. Lengths 
twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet; thickness, one and one-sixteenth inch: 
width, six inches full. 

Clear or First Rate,— Are perfect pieces of full length, width and 
thickness. 

Second Rate. — Pine having one clear face, or two defective faces, 
where the defects are limited upon one face to bright sap not over one- 
quarter of the width of the board on one edge, or narrow bright sap on 
both edges, but no wane; or to one blue edge or to one narrow wane. 
Both faces must in this case be clear, except that three sound knots of 
less than one inch diameter will be allowed, which may show through the 
board, provided they lie in a straight line parallel with the edge. 

Third Rate.— May have more defects than are described in Second 
Rate, but must be free from shakes, large unsound knots or rot. This 
grade also includes lumber below the standard thickness. 

Culls. — Boards having large unsound knots, shakes or rot. 

STAIR PLANK. 

Are ten inches and over in width; twelve, fourteen and sixteen feet in 
length; sawed to one and one sixteenth, one and five-sixteenths and one 
and nine sixteenths inches in thickness. 

The grading and inspection of Stair Plank are the same as of Boards. 



WILLIAMS P< ) RT INS PECTK >N . 



WILLIAMSPORT INSPECTION 



The well known Allegheny region is largely represented by the operat- 
ors at Lock Haven and Williamsport, Pa., and the inspection customs of 
the former are governed by the rules of the West Branch Lumberman's 
Exchange, as is the case in the surrounding country, outside of those two 
points, where lumber is handled to any extent. As the shipments from 
this section are largely to Philadelphia and Baltimore, a knowledge of 
the inspection customs of the producing point, conveys as well an idea of 
the inspection at the consuming or distributing points. As in all other 
markets allowance must be made for variation in practice, while the rules 
are observed as a standard. 

RULES OF INSPECTION 

Adopted by the West Branch Lumberman's Exchange, and in vogue at 

Williamsport and contiguous points. 

Selects and Better.— Shall include all the better grades which are 
equal in value to the following described piece : not. less than eight inches 
in width, and perfect up to ten inches in width, except sap, which may 
be admitted one and one-half times the thickness on the back side. 

Above ten inches wide will admit of imperfections equal to three small 
knots, and sap one and one half times the thickness on face side; above 
fourteen inches wide will admit of imperfections equal to sap as above, 
and larger knots and straight split one-sixth the length of the piece; as 
the width increases, will admit of greater imperfections, but not enough 
to decrease the value below the first described piece. 

Picks. — This grade shall include all boards below the grade of Selects 
and better, that shall be equal in value to a piece of from six to nine 
inches wide, that shall have a perfect face, with back side sound and free 
from badly stained sap. 

Above nine inches wide, will admit of defect equal to sap two inches 
on either edge of face side, and knots equal to one knot two and one-half 
inches in diameter. 

Above thirteen inches wide may admit of defects equal to sap nine inches 
in width on either edge of face side, and three knots two and one-half 
inches in diameter. All boards of this grade above ten inches may admit 
of straight split, one-sixth the length of the piece, but no board shah be 
of less value than the first described piece, 



32 MAINE SURVEY. 



Flooring.— Shall include all boards below Picks that shall be five 
inches in width, with red, sound knots not exceeding one and one-half 
inches in diameter. Will admit of sap one and one-half times the thick- 
ness of the piece, and when above ten inches in width may admit of 
straight split one-sixth the length of the piece, and should be free from 
shakes, rot and loose knots. 

Third Common or Barn Boards,— Shall include all lumber below 
the grade of flooring that is of fairly sound character. May admit of 
straight split one-quarter the length of the piece, and should be free from 
large loose knots, bad shakes and rot. 

Culls and Samples. — Shall consist of all lumber of a generally un- 
sound character, and where the imperfections are too great to allow of 
the board being used for the ordinary uses of Third Common or Barn 
Boards. Worthless, rotten lumber should not be counted in this grade. 

Pickets. — No. 1. Shall be clear of knots, wane and black sap; not less 
than seven-eighths inch thick and two and a half inches wide. 

No. 2. May include sound knots, stained sap and wane not to exceed 
one-half the thickness of picket. 

Square Pickets to be of same grades. 

Lath. — No. 1. Shall be one and a half inches wide, not less than three- 
eighths of an inch thick, packed in bundles of 100 pieces to each bundle. 

Hemlock. — Shall consist of two grades ; merchantable and cull hem- 
lock. 

Shingles. — Are graded Nos. 1 and 2, and are twenty-four inches in 
length. 

No. 1. Should be clear of sap and knots; five-eighths-inch at the butt 
and one-eighth-inch at the point. 

No. 2. Should be clear at least one- third the length from the butt, but 
the balance will admit of small knots, if sound, and some sap. 



MAINE SURVEY. 



Maine was at one time the heaviest producing section in White Pine. 
Fifty years ago the lumberman of New York, Connecticut and contiguous 
states, made annual ocean voyages to Bangor and other points in Maine 
for their supplies of Pine and Spruce lumber and timber, and the hardy 
lumbermen of that day, or their sons and successors, have been among 
the most forward and enterprising agents in the settlement of the then 
unknown forests of the Northwest. Year by year have the forests of 
Maine yielded to the brawn and muscle of the lumbermen, and the in- 



MAINE SURVEY. 33 



satiate appetite of the saw mill, until to-day the character of the Pine 
resources of the state is well depicted in the designations which attest the 
prevailing systems of Inspection. While the quantity of pine is very 
much reduced, the quality of it has also deteriorated in proportion, and 
the "Survey" is less to the advantage of the purchaser. Maine still boasts 
a large supply of Spruce and Hemlock, and will be able to supply these 
for many years to come. In fact, from the well known rapid growth of 
Spruce, the state will, for a generation at least, be still able to supply its 
quota, and one-half the state will always be productive forest as the land 
is worth more to grow timber on than any other crop, and is only culled, 
not cleared. 
The Survey of Spruce is rather in favor of the purchaser. 

PINE. 

No. l.—Is entirely dispensed with, and the first quality now recognized 
is called No. 2. 

No. 2.— This may be of any length or width, provided, however, that 
the short lengths and narrows must be good; the shorter and narrower 
the board, the better the quality required. A board twelve feet long and 
five or six inches in width, must be entirely free from knots a^d sap, end 
must be straight in grain. Larger boards must be nearly free ii-om knots, 
sap and shake. 

No. 3. — Must be free from shakes, but a few knots or a little sap will 
not condemn it. The size of the board goes far to determine this quality; 
very small pieces otherwise up to grade, would be classed as No. 4. 

No. 4. — Is a small board usually free from knots, but with some sap. 
If large boards are put in this number, it is because one-quarter or one- 
third of the piece is shaky, although the balance may be good. 

The market recognizes, also, two kinds of shipping boards designated 
" Shippers", viz. : Smooth and Common. 

Smooth Shippers .—Ave boards without shake or case knots, or any 
large knots. 

Common Shippers. — Are boards coarse and knotty, eight inches and 
upward in width, and twelve feet and upward in length, (These are some- 
times manufactured under special orders, when they may be nine inches, 
ten inches, or even greater widths.) In this grade splits, red streaks or 
very shaky boards are objectionable. 

Narrows, or Narrow Boards. — Is the next grade to Common Ship- 
pers, and consists of boards too small for Shippers. These must not be 
very coarse; must be suitable for floor boards. 

Poor Fours. — These consist of sappy, shaky, or knotty boards, not 
suited to be classed in either of the foregoing descriptions, 



34 BURLINGTON, VT.. INSPECTION. 



Scoots. — Are the lowest grade; rotten boards and all others not. ad- 
missable in other grades are surveyed as scoots. 

The market also handles what is termed Sapling Pine or Gang Boards. 
These are usually manufactured in gang mills, the survey as to quality 
being about the the same as the balance of the grades described, except 
as to designation, the twos, threes and fours being put together under the 
one term Planers. The shippers, narrow boards, poor fours and scoots 
are surveyed as described in those heads. 

Gutter and Deck Plank. — The rule last described is also applied to 
gutter and deck plank. 

SPRUCE. 

Spruce is known in the two qualities of Merchantable and Scoots. The 
Scoots comprise boards which are cross grained, renty or rotten. In sur- 
veying the grades are divided into two qualities, viz. : Floor Boards and 
Coarse. The floor boards must be nearly free from knots; all others are 
coarse. 



BURLINGTON, VT., INSPECTION. 



Although doing a large business in lumber the extensive market of 
Burlington has no systematized method of inspection. Steps are, how- 
ever, in progress looking to that end, and probably before long rules and 
regulations regarding inspection will be adopted by the dealers in that 
section. While each lumberman now has an inspection of his own, a va- 
riety of customs prevail, notwithstanding an endeavor on the part of all 
toward uniformity. 

The grades recognized in the Burlington market are as follows : Selects, 
Shelving, Second Shelving, Pickings, Shippers, Box and Mill Culls. 

These gradings apply to wide lumber from eight inches and upward. 

Strips twelve feet long and upward are classed as First Quality, Second 
Quality, Third Quality and Box. 

Under twelve feet in length the classes of First and Seconds are com- 
bined as one, while all unfit for this grade go into a still loAver grade of 
Third Quality or into a new grade of Box. 

Spruce is divided into three grades, namely: Clear, number One and 
number Two. (See Maine Survey.) 

Selects.— Comprise the finer grades of lumber, and include all fair 
widths approaching to the tipper grades of other markets, and suited to 
all the finer finishing. purposes, for which the timber is adapted. 

Shelving.— Includes ten. twelve and fourteen inch stock, and is classed 
as First and Second Shelving, as to relative quality and adaptability to 



NEW ORLEANS INSPECTION. 3? 

the purpose indicated; First Quality ranks about $7 per thousand below 
uppers, while the Second Quality is from $5 to $7 below the First. In 
both qualities more or less knots and sap may be allowed, not affecting 
the board for the purpose from which it derives its name. 

Pickings. — A grade of lumber of any width, suited to one side finish- 
ing, embracing sap boards, and generally such lumber as while from 
width not fitted for shelving, is more defective than Selects, yet filling a 
position which must otherwise be occupied by Selects. As in other mar- 
kets, it may be called the cream of the Common. It is relatively in price 
about $12 below Selects. 

Shippers.— Are of diversified widths, without shake or case knots, 
and free from large, coarse knots, comprising the best of the common 
after the Picks are removed. 

Box.— Comprises a grade poorer than Shippers, yet taking the run of 
the common, in all fairly sound and merchantable lumber. In price it is 
from $2 to $3 below Shippers. 

The grades of Shelving (First and Second), Pickings, Shippers and Box 
are, one and all, selections from Common, made with reference to adapt- 
ability to the uses indicated by their designations. 

Mill Culls. — Are the poorest grade of lumber adapted to any utility, 
or recognized as merchantable, and bear the same description as the same 
grade in other markets. 



NEW ORLEANS INSPECTION. 



Round.— Length of all logs measured to square butt of log, if with pins 
at ends, length measured inside of one of the pins, allowing the other. 
Proportional deductions made from length for extra pins or faults. 

Octagon Logs.— Or logs having more than four faces, shall be measured 
at small end, string measure, girting the log, and one-quarter the girt 
shall be considered as the fourth of the square. Waney logs, however, 
not to be comprised amongst the above, but to be measured as explained 
hereafter. 

If crocked, the lines shall be drawn to make the same the chord of the 
arc of each crook or bend, thus shaping it a perfect squared log from ex- 
treme points. 

Cypress Timber.— In. round logs, when pecky, ten feet off length of logs 
shall be allowed and deducted as compensation for said fault. 

Poplar and Cottonwood.— In round logs to be received at inspection 



NEW ORLEANS LNSPECTION. 



must measure twenty-four inches in diameter, inside bark, by twelve feet 
long. 

Black Walnut.— In round logs, none shall be received as merchanta- 
ble measuring le3s than twenty-six inches in diameter, inside bark, and 
ten feet long, unless by special agreement. 

Squared or Waney. — All logs to be measured gross and net. Gross 
measurement taken at largest end, or stump, for the square, and at the 
extreme length of log or spur if any in same. Net measurement taken 
mid-ways of the log, deducting for net on square logs one inch off two 
sides of logs, and if waney an additional reduction proportional to wane. 
In domestic timber with pins or pin-holes, the length for net measure- 
ment must be taken inside pins or pin-holes. 

Logs of lengths under regulations to be called log ends, and shall be 
paid on their net measurement one-half price paid for logs of standard 
dimension. 

Sawed or hewed timber shall be put up in three classes, viz : Choice, 
Prime and Merchantable. 

Choice. — To be sound, square edged and square butted; must not show 
more than two inches of sap on either face, free from circular shakes or 
unsound knots. 

Prime.— To be sound and square butted, to show heart on each face, 
may show place of wane not to exceed two feet at any one place, and that 
not more than three places in any one corner. 

Merchantable. — To be sound and square butted, not more than three 
inches in width of wane on a corner; need not show heart on any side. 

SPARS. 

Mast Sticks.— Must be worked eight square, and must be straight, 
well hewed, and show heart every four feet in length on every face; free 
from coarse or unsound knots and other defects; knots over two inches 
in diameter are called coarse; ring knots and knots less than three feet 
apart condemned. Not more than four knots must be left in one spar, 
and must be worked with as little taper as possible. 



LENGTH. 


DIAMETER AT CENTER. 


DIAMETER 


AT TOP. 


66 feet. 


Not less than 21 inches. 


Not less than 17 inches, 


69 " 


.. .. .< 23 .. 


;« " '< 


18 " 


76 " 


" " " 26 " 


" " " 


19 " 


79 '• 


" " " 27 ' ; 


" " " 


20 " 


82 " 


.; „ u 28 »i 


U 11 H 


21 " 



Ordinary spars may be hewed four square, though eight square is pre- 
ferred, may show wane on four corners full length, not over three inches 
wide jiv widest place; must show heart full length on four sides, taper as 
little as possible; must be straight and free from coarse or unsound knots 



NEW ORLEANS INSPECTION. 3? 

or other defects. Ring knots and knots less than three feet apart con- 
demned. Not more than four knots must be left in one spar. 

LENGTH. DIAMETER AT CENTER. 

66 to 68 feet 17 inches and upward. 

69to72 " ■- 18 " 

73to76 " 19 " 

7? to SO " 20 " 

81to84 " 21 " 

Octagon spars measured with calliper, and square spars with dip rod 
(three inch hook). Size and length required to hold full. Fractional 
parts of an inch or foot not counted. 

N. B. All the above correspond also to cypress, with only two excep- 
tions. 1st. That cypress having small hollow knots inside the logs, when 
manufactured in lumber, such knots are not allowed in classes Choice 
and Prime, but only in class Merchantable. 2d. That cypress, whether 
it be timber or lumber, can be received in lengths of twelve feet and up- 
ward, unless differently stipulated by contract or agreement. 

WHITE OAK AND ASH. 

White Oak and Ash shall be No. 1, or choice, No. 2, or Prime, No. 3, or 
Merchantable. 

Choice, or No. 1. — Logs to be from body of tree thirty-five or fifty 
.feet long and upward, eighteen to thirty inches square and upward. To 
be square butted with saw, straight grained, free from heart or side rot, 
worm holes, large or unsound knots, splits, checks, shakes, frost or sun 
cracks ; good, sound sap on two corners allowed, not to exceed one inch 
in each corner for every twelve inches in width. If hewn, free from 
spalls and ax scores, and not to taper over one and one-half inch for every 
twenty feet in length, and squared to sharp edge. Pins allowed, if these 
should be the only defect, provided same ba found only at both ends, and 
one side of logs, and not further than six inches from each end, but none 
in the middle, nor on two sides of logs. 

Prime, or No. £.— Length to be from twenty-five to fifty feet and up- 
ward, and to be sixteen to twenty-five inches square and upward, straight 
grained. To be square butted with saw, splits or checks to be parallel to 
two sides of log on one end, and allowed at the other end if parallel to the 
same side of the opposite end. Sap if sound and good allowed on three 
corners, not to exceed one inch in each corner for every twelve inches in 
width. Timber to be free from worm holes, large and unsound knots, 
wind or other shakes, sun cracks allowed only on one side or face of logs; 
pins or pin holes allowed if not more than nine inches from each end, and 
only on one side of logs. Diameter of heart rottenness, if any, not to ex- 
ceed one-twelfth of diameter of log, and not to exceed one foot for every 



NEW ORLEANS INSPECTION. 



twenty feet in length, but no side rottenness allowed. If sawed or hewed, 
to taper as per Class No. 1, wane not to exceed one and one-half inch to 
perfect square of logs. If hewed, to be free from ax scores. 

Merchantable, or No. 3. — Logs to be twenty to thirty feet and up- 
ward in length, and to be nothing under fourteen to twenty inches and 
upward square; to be square butted with saw, splits or checks allowed as 
in class No. 2. Sap allowed on four corners not to exceed one inch in 
each corner for every twelve inches in width. Timber to be free from 
large or unsound knots and worm holes. Wind or other shakes at one 
end of log received; sun or frost cracks allowed on two sides of logs, pins 
and pin holes at end and in middle, if not too numerous and only on one 
side of logs. Heart rottenness received as per Class No. 2, and a slight 
side rottenness received if only on one side. If log hewn, ax scores ad- 
mitted if not too numerous. Wane not to exceed two inches to perfect 
square of logs. Logs to taper two inches for each twenty feet in length. 
Any timber not within above classification is called rejected, and cannot 
be branded as inspected, though by special contract it may be accepted 
by purchasers. 

Classification of Pine, Cypress. Poplar. Cotton and other soft woods. 
All kinds of lumber are measured full contents, the question of sap, etc., 
etc., being always determined by contract and stipulated classification of 
same. 

Flitch.— All kinds of flitch to be measured at small end of pieces, inside 
eap on one edge, and sap measured on the other edge. 

Deals.— Deals shall be put in three classes, viz.: Choice, Prime and 
Merchantable. 

Choice.— Sound, square edged and square butted with saw. all heart 
with exception of small streaks of sap on one face, comparatively free from 
knots, and entirely free from shakes and splits, nine inches and upward in 
width, three inches and upward in thickness, and twelve feet and upward 
in length. 

Prime. — Sound, square edged, and square butted, one heart face, 
three-fourths heart on the other face, entirely free from shakes, splits, 
large or unsound knots, nine inches wide and upward, and twelve feet 
long and upward. 

Merchantable.— Sound, square edged and square butted, one heart 
face, and show heart on the other face, free from through shakes, splits 
and unsound knots, nine inches wide and upward, three inches thick 
and upward, and twelve feet long and upward. 

Scantling.— Scantling shall be put in two classes, viz.: Prime and 
Merchantable. 

Prime.— Must be square edged, three corners heart, sound, evenly 
sawed, free from large or unsound knots, through shakes or splits, twelve 



NEW ORLEANS INSPECTION. 



feet long and upward, sizes 2x3 to 11x11 inclusive. Sizes from 8x8 to 11x11 
inclusive may show sap on all corners, but not to exceed one to one and 
one-fourth inch on any one corner, in proportion to the width of the 
scantling. 

Merchantable.— Sound, square edged, evenly sawed, free from 
through shakes and splits, sizes same as Prime. Four corners sap al- 
lowed as in class Prime. 

Plank.— Plank shall be put in two classes, viz.: Prime and Merchant- 
able. 

Prime. — Must be sound, one heart face, two-thirds heart on the other 
face, square edged, evenly sawed, free from through shakes or splits, 
large or unsound knots, one and one-fourth to three inches thick, by ten 
inches and upward, and twelve feet long and upward. 

Merchantable. — Sound, one heart face, evenly sawed, square edged, 
free from through shakes, splits or unsound knots, one and one-quarter 
to three inches thick, ten inches wide and upward, twelve feet long and 
upward. 

Flooring. — Flooring shall be put in three classes, viz : Clear, Prime 
and Merchantable. 
Clear. — Must be sound, free from sap, knots, shakes and splits. 
Prime.— Must have one face free from sap, and the opposite mer- 
chantable. 

Merchantable.— Must show one-half heart on most sappy face the 
whole length, free from through and round shakes or unsound knots. 
All flooring must be sawed plump for any size it is calculated for. 
Edge boards must be one or one and one-fourth inch thick, any width 
or length, must be sound, square edged, free from loose knots or splits, 
and show heart on both sides. 

All lumber of a merchantable quality and upward must be square 
butted. All refuse cullings, or lumber of a quality below these classifi- 
cations to have no class, but be sold on its merits. Cypress lumber has 
two special classifications besides those similar to pine, as follows : 

Narrow.— To be from four to nine inches in width, three-quarters to 
one inch thick, and must be sound, square edged and free from sap. 

Box Stuff.— To be of any width from two inches and upward, and of 
one inch full thickness, square edged, and free from sap. 

Lumber.— Is to be classed also No. 1, or Choice, No. 2, or Prime, and 
No. 3, or Merchantable. 

Choice, or No 1. — Shall be sound, square edged and butted with saw, 
and evenly sawed. Widths to be from twenty to thirty inches and up- 
ward. Thickness from one-half to eight inches. Length from twenty- 
five to fifty feet and upward. Entirely free from splits, checks, large and 
unsound knots, pins or pin holes, frost or sun cracks, worm holes. 



NEW ORLEANS INSPECTION. 



Wind or other shakes, and with only one-eighth of an inch of sound sap 
on one corner, for every twenty inches in width. 

Prime, or No. 2.— Shall be square edged, butted with saw and evenly 
sawn. "Widths from sixteen to twenty inches and upward. Length from 
twenty to fifty feet and upward; entirely free from shakes, frost and sun 
cracks, splits, large or unsound knots and worm holes. Only two pins or 
pin holes accepted at each end at six to nine inches from end, and one 
inch sound sap on two corners allowed for every sixteen inches in width. 

Merchantable, or No. 3. — Shall be square edged, square butted with 
saw, and evenly sawn. One heart face on one side and must show heart 
on two-thirds of length of other face; sap, however, must be sound. Free 
from through shakes or through splits, and entirely free from large or 
unsound knots. Pins or pin holes as per Class No. 2. Sun and frost 
cracks allowed on sappy face only, and not to go beyond two inches in 
depth on any one face. Lengths from sixteen to twenty feet or more. 

Flitch.— Same classifications but dimensions to be taken as stated 
under the head of Classification. 

BLACK WALNUT, CHEERY AND OTHER DOMESTIC HARDWOODS. 

Timber.— Shall be put in four classes, viz : No. 1, or Choice; No. 2, 
or Prime; No. 3, or Merchantable, and Refuse. 

Choice, or No. 3.— Logs to be from body of tree, straight grained, 
and from twelve feet and upward in length, and from twenty-eight inches 
and upward square; to taper only three-quarters to one inch for every 
twelve feet in length. To be square butted with saw, free from all defects 
to make it suitable to best kind of work. Wane allowed one and one-half 
inch to full square of log for every ten inches width or depth. Pins al- 
lowed, if this be the only defect, provided the same be found only at both 
ends, and on one side of logs, and not farther than six inches from each 
end. 

Prime, or No. 2.— Logs from body of tree, and in length same as 
No. 1, and with same taper, and from twenty-two inches and upward 
square. To be straight grained, square butted with saw. free from shakes, 
bad or large knots, heart or side rottenness, one and one-half inch for 
every ten inches in width or depth allowed for wane and corresponding 
sap to same, also pins at both ends of logs, but not further than six 
inches from each end, and shall be free from splits not parallel to one face. 

Merchantable, or No, 3. — Logs in length of ten feet and upward, 
and eighteen inches square and upward. Taper and wane allowed as in 
class number Two; free from bad shakes, large or unsound knots, and 
bad splits; pins allowed as in class No. 2, also splits at the ends of log? 
though not parallel to sides. 

Refuse. — All timber losing one-third or more of its measurement as 



NEW ORLEANS INSPECTION. 41 

allowance for defects shall be called Refuse, and will be considered unfit 
for shipment unless differently stipulated in contracts of sale. 

Lumber.— Shall be divided in three classes, viz: No. 1, No. 2 and 
Refuse. 

JVo. 1. — Includes all boards, planks and joist free from rot, shakes, 
and nearly free from knots, sap and bad taper. All pieces to be evenly 
sawed, square butted, and square edged. Knots to be small and sound, 
and so few as not to cause waste to the best kind of work. A small split 
on one end of a board or plank if not too long and parallel with edge of 
piece, is also classed No. 1. 

No. 2. — All pieces must be square edged and evenly sawed; this class 
includes all other descriptions if so manufactured, except when one-third 
is worthless, that is, boards, joist or planks containing sap, knots, splits 
on one end, and all these imperfections combined make less than one-third 
of a piece unfit for good work, and only fit for ordinary purposes, such 
piece is classed No. 2, 

Refuse. — Includes all boards, planks or joists badly manufactured by 
being sawed in a diamond shape, smaller in one part than in another, 
splits on both ends, or with long split or splits not parallel to edge, with 
large and bad knots, worm or pin holes, sap, rot, shakes, or other imper- 
fections which would cause any one piece of lumber to be one-third 
worthless or waste. 

MAHOGANY, SPANISH CEDAR, AND OTHER LIKE FOREIGN 
HARDWOODS. 

Timber.— Shall be put in four classes, viz. : Choice, Prime, Merchant- 
abe and Refuse. 

Choice Cedar. — Must be straight grained, free from knots and all and 
every other defect. Shall be manuf actured straight and evenly, may be 
hewed or sawed and ought to be square butted with saw before shipment, 
as all slant heads will be deducted from gross to sale measurement, full 
up to perfect square of logs, which must 'measure from twelve feet and 
upward long, and eighteen inches and upward square. Wane of three- 
fourths of one inch to perfect square is permitted, but is invariably de- 
ducted in its proportional ratio to the log from gross to sale measurement. 

Choice Mahogany.— Will correspond to above specifications, except 
that logs may be curly or cross-grained, and sizes must be twelve feet long 
and upward, and twenty inches and upward square. 

Prime Cedar. — Must be straight grained and free from large knots, 
small ones, if sound, being allowed. Shall be manufactured as in class 
Choice. Wormy sap not objectionable if worm-holes do not go through to 
the body of the wood, and a wane of two inches to perfect square of logs 
is permitted, also, rotten or decayed heart not to exceed one-eighth of 



42 NEW ORLEANS INSPECTION. 

length of log; splits not to be over six inches for every ten feet of length 
of log, and sun checks not to be over two inches deep in any one face are 
also permitted, and though all these defects are permitted, they are inva- 
riably deducted from gross to the net, or sale measurement. Logs must 
be ten feet and upward long, and sixteen inches and upward square. 

Prime Mahogany.— Shall correspond to all the above specifications 
except the logs may be cross-grained, curly and have large knots, if sound, 
and that sizes must be ten feet long and upward, and eighteen inches and 
upward square. 

Merchantable Cedar. — Logs may be manufactured somewhat un- 
even, but ought to be square butted with saw, as explained in class Choice. 
Can be crooked, waney, sappy, wormy, split, sun checked, and have rotten 
heads and knots, large or small, provided the logs shall not lose more 
than one-third from the gross to the net sale meaurement for these de- 
fects. Logs can be from nine feet long and upward, and fourteen inches 
square and upward. Wood may be curly or cross-grained. 

Merchantable Mahogany. — Shall correspond to all the above speci- 
fications. 

Refuse Cedar and Mahogany. — All other descriptions of wood 
admitted in this class which by its defects will lose more than one-third 
from the gross to the net sale measurement, provided logs shall measure 
nine feet long and upward, and twelve inches square and upward. 

Lumber. — Shall be put in three classes, viz.: Choice, Prime and Mer- 
chantable. 

Choice. — Includes all boa,rds, planks and joists to be square edged, 
evenly sawed and free from sap, rot, shakes or splits, knots, if any, to be 
small and sound, and free from any fault which may cause waste for the 
best kind of work. 

Boards and planks to be not less than eighteen inches wide and upward. 

Prime. — To be manufactured as class Choice; splits parallel to edge of 
piece allowed if not exceeding six inches long for every ten feet in length 
of piece. A streak of sap on two corners allowed, and pieces not to be less 
than fifteen inches and upward wide. 

Merchantable. — Includes all other descriptions of boards, planks and 
joists, provided all imperfections combined shall not make one-third of 
the measurement of any piece, any such being rejected and not entitled 
to classification. 

CIGAR CEDAR STUPE. 

Cigar Cedar Stuff shall be put in two classes, viz.: No. 1 and No. 2. 
No. 1. — All boards to be perfect, free of knots, splits, sap, worm holes, 
and any defect which would render any piece unfit for the best work. 
No. #.— Includes all other descriptions, except when one-third worth- 



NEW ORLEANS INSPECTION. 43 

less, in which case any such piece is rejected, purchasers having the right 
to refuse them altogether. 

All lumber, such as planks, boards, scantlings, joists, and deals, shall 
have their contents marked on each piece, and the certificate given by the 
inspector will state all items of specifications corresponding to the sur- 
vey made-, and also the number of pieces of each class. 

For round timber the certificate of the inspector will only give the net 
contents of each log, and for square timber the logs shall be numbered, 
and the certificate of measurement must correspond to each number, giv- 
ing both the gross and the net measure of each, and the faults found when 
surveying them. 

In all circumstances domestic timber of all descriptions, when rafted, 
will class Choice, if with no other fault in same but wooden pins needed 
for its safety in rafting it, provided, however, that same be placed only at 
both ends of logs not further than nine inches from each end, and none 
in the middle. 

STAVES. 

No. 1, pipe 60 in, long, 5 to 6 in. wide, 1H in. thick on thin edge. 

No. 2, pipe 56 " 5 " 6 " 1H 

No.3,pipe 56 " 4 ; ' 5 ■ 1~ 

No. 1, hogshead.. 48 " 5 " 6 " Vfa " 

No. 2, hogshead.. 44 " 5 ; ' 6 " Wo, " 

Claret staves 40 " 5 '• 6 " lj| " 

Barrel staves 33 " 5 " 6 " lj| " 

All of the above staves must be made of white oak, over cup or cow 
oak. and riven with the grain to as equal thickness as possible. If in 
riving, a stave is thicker on the back, the surplus timber should be taken 
off, thus making both edges about even in thickness. An allowance of 
two inches should be made for crooked sawing, otherwise many staves 
will be under the required length. Staves must be clear of sap, heart, 
knots, short crooks, wind shakes and worm-holes. The proper manner 
of sapping is to strike the stave at the end, leaving a slight bulge in the 
center. The timber must be cut when the sap is down, that is during the 
fall and winter. When a stave is spoiled by any of the defects above 
named, it should be sawed down to the length of a shorter dimension, 
as many defective sixty inch staves by sawing would make good forty-four, 
forty or thirty-three inch staves. Staves are sold by the thousand of 
1,200 pieces. 

Hoop poles should be of smooth barked hickory, free from heavy butts 
and switch tops. Hogshead poles twelve to fourteen feet in length and 
one full inch in diameter at the top. Barrel poles eight feet in length and 
full three-fourths of an inch at the top. Half barrel poles seven feet 
long, one-half inch at top. 



BOSTON INSPECTION. 



BOSTON INSPECTION. 



The Inspection of Boston is under the state law. This law provides for 
a surveyor general, appointed every three years by the governor, wJio in 
turn appoints a sufficient number of deputy surveyors, removable at his 
pleasure, and for whom he shall be responsible. These officers are under 
bonds for the faithful discharge of their duties, and a record is kept and 
returned annually to the secretary of the commonwealth, specifying the 
amount, and various kinds and qualities of lumber surveyed during the 
year. While the law provides for the following classification, it is never- 
theless optional with the buyer or seller as to its use. In pine lumber, 
especially, except in the lower grades shipped from the East, this inspec- 
tion is almost obsolete. Western grading is recognized, and Uppers, 
Selects and Fine Common are bought and sold as such, without reference 
to Boston Survey. 

The law provides for the following classification : 

PINE BOAKDS AND PLANK. 

Of pine boards and planks, except southern pine, there shall be six 
sorts. The first shall be denominated No, 1, and include boards not less 
than one inch thick, square edged, free from rot, shakes, and nearly free 
from knots and sap, except such boards and planks as are not more than 
one-eighth waste, which shall be received as No. 1. The second sort shall 
be denominated No. 2, and include boards not less than one inch thick, 
and of which not less than seven-eighths is suitable for planing and first 
class finish : provided, that such boards as are clear but deficient in thick- 
ness as aforesaid, shall be received as No. 2. The third sort shall be de- 
denominated No. 3, and include boards not less than seven-eighths of an 
inch thick, and cf which not less than three-fourths is suitable for planing 
and second-class finish. The fourth sort shall be denominated No. 4, and 
include boards not less than seven-eighths of an inch thick, nearly free 
from rot, and nearly square edged, free from loose and large branch knots, 
and suitable for covering buildings; all Norway pine boards and planks 
shall be included in the fourth, fifth and sixth sorts. The fifth sort shall 
be denominated No. 5. and include all boards and planks of every descrip- 
tion not being within the other four denominations, except when one- 
third is worthless, which boards and planks shall be denominated refuse. 



BOSTON INSPECTION. 



DIMENSION. 

Of pine joists and dimension timber there shall be three sorts. The 
first sort shall be denominated No. 1, and include all joists and dimension 
timber that are sound and nearly square edged. The second sort shall be 
denominated No. 2, and include all other description, except when one- 
third is worthless, which joists and dimension timber shall be denomina- 
ted Kefuse. 

SPRUCE, ETC. 

Of spruce, hemlock, juniper, and southern pine, boards, planks, sawed 
timber and joists, there shall be three sorts. The first shall be denomi- 
nated No. 1, and include all boards, planks, sawed timber, and joists, 
that are sound and nearly square edged. The second sort shall be de- 
nominated No. 2, and include all other descriptions, except when one- 
third worthless, which boards, planks, sawed timber, and joists, shall be 
denominated Refuse. 

HARDWOOD. 

Of ash, maple, and other hardwood and ornamental boards, planks, 
and joists, there shall be three sorts. The first shall be denominated No. 
1, and include all boards, planks and joists that are fee from rot, shakes, 
and bad knots. The second sort shall be denominated No. 2, and include 
all other descriptions, except when one-third is worthless, which boards, 
planks and joists shall be denominated refuse. 

HEWED TIMBER. 
Of hewed timber, except mahogany and cedar, there shall be three 
sorts. The first sort shall be denominated No. 1, and include all timber 
that is sound and nearly square edged. The second sort shall be denom- 
inated No. 2, and include timber of all other descriptions, except when 
one-third is worthless, which timber shall be denominated refuse. 

SHIP KNEES. 
Of oak, juniper and spruce knees, there shall be two sorts. The first 
sort shall be denominated No. 1, and include all sound knees of the fol- 
lowing dimensions : arm or root one foot six inches long, body of knee 
three feet long, working thickness four inches; arm or root two feet and 
six inches long, body of knee three feet long, working thickness five 
inches; arm or root two feet and nine inches long, body of knee three 
feet and six inches long, working thickness six inches; arm of root three 
feet and three inches long, body of knee four feet and six inches long, 
working thickness seven inches; arm or root three feet and six inches 
long, body of knee four feet and three inches long, working thickness 
eight inches; arm or root three feet nine inches long, body of knee four 



46 QUEBEC CULLING. 



feet six inches long, working thickness nine inches; arm or root four feet 
long, body of knee five feet long, -working thickness ten inches and up- 
ward. The second sort shall be denominated refuse, and shall include 
all other descriptions of less dimensions than those specified in the first 
denomination; all knees shall have the working thickness marked thereon, 
and on the first sort the number "one''' shall be marked. 



QUEBEC CULLING. 

Extracts from the Culler's Act, giving Rules for the Measurement of 
Timber, Masts, Spars, Deals, Staves, Etc., Etc. 



All culling in Quebec must be done under the specification of an act of 
the Provincial Parliament, from which we extract the following salient 
points : 

All square timber must be measured by one of three modes. 

First. — Measured off in the raft or otherwise, giving the full cubical 
contents without allowance or deduction. 

Second. — Measured in shipping order (which shall mean sound, fairly 
made timber) ; gum seams closed at the butt, and sound knots not be be 
be considered unsoundness — lengths under the merchantable standard 
hereinafter mentioned, and not less than twelve feet long to be received 
if, in the opinion of the Culler, the same be fit for shipment. 

Third. — Culled and measured in a merchantable state, in accordance 
with the rules, standards and limitations hereinafter described. (8 Vic, 
cap. 19. sec. 9.) 

In measuring timber the Culler employed for that purpose shall meas- 
ure the length of each piece, together with the girth, and shall provide 
himself with a measuring rod and tape, which shall, in all cases, be 
English measure, tested and compared with a standard kept in the office 
of the Supervisor (such rod having a hook at the end five-eighths of an 
inch long) ; and also a scribing knife, with which he shall mark in legible 
characters, the length, breadth and thickness of all square timber meas- 
ured or culled by him, and the mark, initials or number of the party, if 
required. And every Culler shall provide himself with a proper stamp, 
with the initials of his name in legible characters, and with the following 
capital letters in addition : 

M, which shall denote what is merchantable. 

U, which shall denote what is sound and of merchantable quality, but 
\mder merchantable size, 



QUEBEC CULLING. 47 



S, which shall denote what is second quality. 

T, shall denote what is third quality. 

B, shall denote what is rejected or unmerchantable; which marks shall 
be indented or stamped on the end of each article of lumber culled, in 
terms of merchantable standard hereinafter described, except West India 
and barrel staves, boards, lath wood and handspikes. 

In all cases the Supervisor and Cullers shall be governed by the follow- 
ing descriptions, rules, standards and limitations, in ascertaining and cer- 
tifying the merchantable size and quality of lumber submitted to their 
culling. 

SQUABE WHITE OAK TIMBEB. 

First Quality.— Shall be free from rot, rotten knots, (affecting the 
surrounding wood), open rings and large grub or worm-holes; but small 
worm-holes and shakes shall be allowed, according to the judgment of 
the Culler. 

Second Quality.— Shall be oak not coming within the definition of 
first quality, and which in the judgment of the Culler is not culls. 

SQUABE HARD GBAY OB BOCK ELM. 

Shall be free from rots, open rings and rotten knots, (affecting the sur- 
rounding wood) ; but shakes and slivers shall be allowed according to the 
judgment of the Culler. 

WHITE, BED OB YELLOW PINE TIMBEB. 

Shall be free from rot, rotten knot.j (affecting the surrounding wood), 
worm-holes, open shakes and open rings ; but sound knots shall be al- 
lowed, according to the judgment of the Culler. 

SQUABE BED PINE TIMBEB. 
Shall be free from rots, rotten knots, (affecting the surrounding wood), 
worm-holes, shakes and splits ; but sound knots shall be allowed accord- 
ing to the judgment of the Culler. 

SQUABE ASH, BASSWOOD AND BUTTEBNUT. 
Shall be of the same quality as White or Yellow Pine square timber. 

SQUABE BIBCH. 
Shall be free from rot, rotten knots, splits and shakes and shall be al- 
lowed two inches of wane. 

MASTS, BOWSPBITS AND BED PINE SPABS. 

Shall be sound, free from bad knots, rents and shakes, and the heart- 
wood shall be visible in spots at or near the partners, 



48 QUEBEC CULLING. 



HICKORY HANDSPIKES. 

Shall be six feet long, and three and a half inches square at the small 
end. 

ASH OARS. 

Shall be three inches square on loin, and five inches broad on the blade. 
The blade shall be one-third of the length of the oar; and such oars shall 
be cleft straight on all sides, and free from large knots, splits and shakeB. 

LATH WOOD. 

Shall be cut in lengths of from three to six feet, and measured by the 
cord of eight feet in length, by four feet in height. To be merchantable 
shall be free from rot, and split freely; each billet may contain to the ex- 
tent of three or four open case knots, provided they run in line, or nearly 
so ; and it shall not have more than one twist. 

PINE OR FIR BOARDS. ' 

Shall not be less than ten feet in length, nor less than one inch in thick- 
ness, nor less than seven inches in breadth, equally broad from end to 
end, edged with a saw, or neatly trimmed by a straight line, and shall be 
free from rot, bad knots, rents and shakes, and of equal thickness on both 
edges from end to end; but the color alone of any board shall not be 
sufficient caiise for its rejection, if it is in other respects sound and mer- 
chantable, and of the dimensions required by this Act. 

WHITE OR YELLOW PINE DEALS. 

First Quality, — To be merchantable. Shall be free from rot, rotten 
knots, grub worm-holes, open case knots, shakes and splits (a slight sun 
crack excepted) ; and sound knots and hard black knots to be allowed as 
follows : If not exceeding three in number, and not exceeding Upon the 
average one inch and a quarter in diameter; if exceeding three and not 
exceeding six in number, and upon an average not exceeding three-quar- 
ters of an inch in diameter; this proportion of knots to be allowed for a 
deal eleven inches in width and twelve feet in length; and deals of greater 
or less dimensions to be allowed for in proportion, according to the judg- 
ment of the Culler. Wane equal to half an inch on one side if running 
the whole length of the deal to be allowed; and if not exceeding half the 
length of each deal, three-quarters of an inch to be allowed; they shall 
be free from black or dead sap (with a slight exception), at the discretion 
of the Culler. 

WHITE OR YELLOW PINE SECOND QUALITY DEALS. 

Second Quality,— Shall be free from rot, rotten knots and splits, with 



QUEBEC CULLING. 49 



Blight exceptions at the discretion of the Culler; and sound knots and 
bard black knot.-; to be allowed as follows : If not exceeding six in num- 
ber, and not exceeding upon the average one inch and a half in diameter; 
if. exceeding six, and not exceeding twelve in number, and not exceeding 
upon the average one inch and one-quarter in diameter (small knots un- 
der Jjalf an inch in diameter not to be counted or considered), this pro- 
portion of knots to be allowed for a deal eleven inches wide and twelve 
feet in length, and deals of greater or less dimensions to be allowed for in 
proportion, according to the judgment of the Culler; heart, shakes and 
sun cracks not exceeding three- fourths of an inch in depth to be allowed, 
as aJso worm holes., at the judgment of (lie Culler; wane of half an inch 
to one inch to be allowed, according to the quality of the deal; in other 
respects at the judgment of the Culler. Deals rejected as not coming 
within the standard of merchantable, or second quality, shall be classed 
as culls, except that the Culler may, if requested by buyer and seller, 
select and classify as Third Quality the best of the deals so rejected. 

RED PINE DEALS. 

To be merchantable shall be free from rot, rotten knots, grub worm- 
holes, open case knots and splits; several small sound knots to be allowed, 
according to the judgment of the Culler; heart shake to be allowed, if 
it does not run far into the deal, or form a split through at the ends; they 
shall be free (or nearly so) from black or dead sap; but sound sap in the 
corners or on a portion of one face of a deal to be allowed, according to 
the judgment of the Culler. 

SPRUCE DEALS. 

To be merchantable shall be free from rot, rotten knots, grub worm- 
holes, open case knots, splits and shakes (a heart shake, not exceeding 
one-fourth of an inch in depth, excepted); several small sound knots and 
hard black knots to be allowed, according to the judgment of the Culler, 
and in the exercise of such judgment, he shall keep in view the peculiar 
nature of the wood, and govern his judgment accordingly; wane equal 
to half an inch on one edge, if running the whole length of the deal, to 
be allowed; and if not exceeding one-quarter the length of such deal, 
three-quarters of an inch to be allowed. 

SPRUCE AND RED PINE DEALS. 

Second Quality,— Shall be deals not coming within the definition of 
merchantable, and which, in the opinion and judgment of the Culler, are 
not culls, and shall be classed as second quality; and the Culler, if re- 
quired by seller and buyer, may select and classify as Third Quality 
the best of the deals unfit to be Seconds, 



50 QUEBEC CULLING. 



QUEBEC STANDARD HUNDRED OF DEALS. 

Shall be one hundred pieces, twelve feet long, eleven inches wide, and 
two and one-half inches thick; and deals of all other dimensions shall be 
computed according to said standard. Deals of all qualities shall not be 
less than eight feet long, seven inches broad and two and a half inches 
thick. 

Deal ends shall not be less than six feet long; lengths should never fall 
short ot full feet, or be more than two inches over length, and. shall be 
computed according to the Quebec standard. 

MERCHANTABLE DEALS. 

Must be well sawed (this point must have especial attention), and 
squared at the end with a saw; and the color alone shall be no objection 
to their being merchantable. All deals when culled shall in all cases be 
stamped with the initials of the Culler, and the capital letter denoting 
their quality as such. 

PROVISO AS TO SPRUCE DEALS. ■ 

Provided always that spruce deals, if not sawed at ends prior to or at 
the time of culling, shall be marked with the capital letter denoting their 
respective qualities, with red chalk, in large, bold letters. 

HOW OTHER DEALS SHALL BE MADE. 

To prevent mistakes in piling, all other deals shall be marked with bold 
strokes, in red chalk, as follows : 
Merchantable shall be marked I. 
Second quality shall be marked II. 
Third quality (if made) shall be marked m. 
Rejected, or culls, shall be marked X. 

DIMENSION OF STAVES. 
Standard or measurement staves shall be of the dimensions set forth 
in the words and figures following : 

5^ feet long. 5 inches ' road, and from 1 to 3 inches thick. 
4Y 2 " " 4>o " " " 1 to 3 " 

3}£ " " 4 " " *' " 1 to 3 " 

%y 2 " " 5 " " " lto3 " 

HEART STAVES. 

Five and a half feet long, and four and a h?.lf inches broad, to be re- 
c< ived as if of merchantable dimensions. 

STANDARD MTLLE. 

ETidl be twelve hundred pieces of five and a half feet long, five inches 



QUEBEC CULLING. 51 



broad, and one and a half inches thick; and standard or measurement 
staves of other dimensions shall be reduced to the said standard by the 
tables of calculation in use. 

WEST INDIA OR PUNCHEON STAVES. 

Shall be three and a half feet long, four inches broad and three-fourths 
of an inch thick; all staves shall be straight-grained timber, properly 
split, with straight edges, free from grub or large worm holes, knots, 
veins, shakes and splinters; and small worm holes, not exceeding three 
in number, to be allowed, according to the judgment of the Culler, pro- 
vided there are no veins running from or connected therewith; and the 
Culler shall measure the length, breadth and thickness of standard staves, 
at the shortest, narrowest' and thinnest parts; and the thickness of West 
India and barrel staves exceeding the standard breadth to be measured at 
such breadth, to wit: four, and three and a half inches, respectively, 
provided the thinnest edge is not less than half an inch. 

TIMBER. 

The dimensions of merchantable timber shall be as set forth in the fol- 
lowing words and figures : 

OAK TIMBER. 

Shall not be less than twenty feet in length, nor less than ten inches 
square in the middle. 

ELM. 

Shall not be less than twenty feet in length, or less than ten inches 
square in the middle. 

WHITE PINE. 

Shall not be less than twenty feet in length, and twelve inches square 
in the middle, and fifteen feet and upward in length, if sixteen inches and 
and upward in the middle. 

RED PINE.' 

Shall not be less than twenty-five feet in length, and ten inches square 
in the middle, and twenty feet and upward in length, if twelve inches 
square and upward in the middle. 

BIRCH. 

Shall not be less than six feet long, or less than twelve inches square in 
the middle. 

TAPER OF MERCHANTABLE TIMBER. 

Oak, three inches under thirty feet, and in proportion for any greater 
length; elm. two inches; white pine, one and a half inches; red pine, two 



QUEBEC CULLING. 



inches; ash, one and a half inches; basswood, one and a half inches; 
butternut, one and a half inches. Bends or twists not to exceed one in 
number. 

HOLLOWS ALLOWED. 

Oak, three inches for every twenty feet in length, and in proportion for 
any greater length; elm, three inches; white pine, two and a half inches; 
red pine, three inches; ash, two and a half inches; basswood, two and a 
half inches; butternut, two and a half inches. 

DIMENSIONS OF WHITE PINE MASTS, BOWSPRITS AND RED 
PINE SPARS. 

White Pine Masts, twenty-three inches and upward at partners, shall 
be three feet in length to each inch in diameter; twenty-two inches, three 
feet, and three feet extreme length ; twenty-one inches and under, three 
feet, and three feet extreme length; twenty inches and under, three feet, 
and four feet extreme length. Hollow or bend not to exceed six inches for 
seventy feet, and in proportion for any greater length. 

BOW SPRITS. 

Shall be two feet in length for every inch in diameter at the partners, 
adding two feet for extreme length. 

RED PINE SPARS. 

Shall be three feet to the inch in diameter at the partners, and nine feet 
extreme length; hollow not to exceed seven inches ^or sixty feet, and in 
proportion for any greater length. 

RE-DRESSING. 

In all cases where it appears that timber, masts, spars, boards, planks, 
deals, staves, oars or any other description of lumber, are not properly 
hewed, squared, butted or edged, but are merchantable in other respects, 
and sold as such, the Supervisor and Culler, respectively, shall order or 
cause the same to be properly dressed and chopped, at the expense of the 
buyer or seller, as the case may be, previously to their being respectively 
received and certified to be merchantable, such dressing and chopping to 
be done under the direction of the Culler in charge of the measuring or 
culling. 



MINNEAPOLIS INSPECTION. 



MINNEAPOLIS INSPECTION. 



At a meeting of the Lumberman's Board of Trade, held May 25, 1878, 
the plan for securing uniformity in the sorting of lumber was fully in- 
augurated, and the grades as nearly determined upon as it is possible to 
define them by any set of words. Entire harmony of opinion exists 
among the manufacturers of the city as to the uselessness of some of the 
grades or kinds which have been put upon the market, and it was unan- 
imously resolved to decrease the number of kinds by striking out several. 
The committee appointed for the purpose, after fully considering the 
matter, reported the following list and description of grades: 

First Clear. — Shall be not less than twelve inches wide and twelve 
feet long; shall be free from all imperfections, with no sap, except where 
over fourteen inches wide; then allow not over one inch on one side. 

Second Clear. — Shall be not less than ten inches wide and twelve feet 
long; defects may be allowed, not to exceed two knots of three-fourths of 
an inch in diameter, or sap that will be equal to one inch on one side. If 
the width be sixteen inches or upwards, defects may be allowed equal to 
three knots of one inch in diameter, or sap equal to three inches the 
whole length. 

Third Clear.— Shall be not less than seven inches wide and twelve 
feet long; defects, equal to three knots one inch in diameter and sap one 
and one-half inch wide in boards to twelve inches; and from twelve to 
sixteen inches wide, knots of two inches in diameter and sap two inches 
on one side; on boards over sixteen inches, defects may be increased to 
knots equal to four inches, and to four inches of sap. 

Clear Strips.— Shall be six inches wide and full one inch thick ; will 
allow one inch of sap, but no other imperfections. 

First Flooring.— May be four, five or six inches wide; allow one inch 
of sap and three small sound knots, but no other imperfections. These 
imperfections to apply to six inch flooring and to decrease according to 
width. 

Second Flooring.— Same as first, in width; allow six small knots, 
and sap equal to one and one-half inch the whole length. 

Common Flooring.— Shall be four, five and six inches wide; allow 
defects equal to eight small knots; sap or shake and split not to exceed 
two feet in length. 

First Siding, Dressed.— Allow one inch sap on thin edge, but no 
other imperfections. 



54 MINNEAPOLIS INSPECTION. 

Second Siding, Dressed. — Allow one inch sap on either edge, and 
three small knots, but no other imperfections. 

Common Siding, Dressed.— Allow sap and defects equal to eight 
small knots, and shake or split two feet in length. 

A Stock. — May be eight to twelve inches wide, twelve to sixteen feet 
long, and of a quality equal to Third Clear Boards. 

B Stock. — Shall be eight, ten and twelve inches wide; shall be sound 
and square edged; aUow from four to eight small, sound knots, or sap 
not to exceed four inches in width the whole length of the best side. 

C Stock. — Shall be eight, ten and twelve inches wide; shall be sound 
' and square edged. Will allow from eight to twelve sound knots, accord- 
ing to width, and will allow Norway. 

D Stock. — Shall be eight, ten and twelve inches wide, and of like 
quality with common boards. 

First Fencing. — Shall be four, five and six inches in width ; shall be 
of good, sound character, free from imperfections that so weaken a piece 
that it cannot be used for substantial fencing purposes. 

Second Fencing. — Defective and unsound lumber. 

Common Boards.^-Sha,\l be seven inches wide and upward, and eight 
feet long; of good, sound lumber and free from large, loose knots, and 
well manufactured: will allow a little wane or a straight split, when 
otherwise, sound and good. 

Common Dimension and Timber.— Shall be of sound lumber and 
well manufactured; shall have no imperfections that will render it unfit 
for substantial building purposes. Some wane allowed. 

Sheathing Boards.— Shall be boards that are unsound in quality, 
with loose knots, shakes, splits and worm eaten, but of sufficient good 
quality to make good roofing boards, and to be six inches wide and up- 
wards. 

A few yards make a grade called E Stock, in which case the D and C 
Stocks are made a little better than these rules call for. 



LOG MEASUREMENTS. 55 



LOG MEASUREMENTS. 



In presenting for the acceptance of log buyers a new table of log meas- 
urements, the author is aware that he has the prejudices of half a century 
to combat, during which time the Scribner and Doyle rules have been of 
almost universal acceptance. Were the tables of those authors suscep- 
tible of full authentication, the task would prove a hopeless one, for the 
reason that correct figures never mislead, but endure in their integrity 
through all time. When, however, the task was commenced of giving to 
the lumber trade a reliable compendium of the laws and customs govern- 
ing the inspection of lumber in various localities, the compiler appre- 
ciated the importance of beginning at the inception of the business, and 
supplying the log dealer with the most reliable rules of measurement, 
through a recommendation to him to adopt one or the other of the stand- 
ards already in use. Aware that in some localities Scribner's rule was 
the favorite, while Doyle's was denounced as incorrect, and in others, 
Scribner's was denounced and Doyle's commended, the author was led 
to make careful examination of both, with a view to a thorough analysis 
of each in this work. 

On taking tip the latest edition of the work entitled: " Scribner's Log 
and Lumber Book," (1879) it was a matter of surprise to find that the 
publishers in announcing, under date of 1872, the ownership of the Doyle 
stereotype plates, as well as those of Scribner, at the same time announced 
the discontinuance of the publication of the Doyle and the permanent 
adoption of Scribner's tables. In connection with the log tables appears 
an announcement that from the many complaints which had been made 
of the incorrectness of the Scribner tables, they had been discarded and 
the Doyle tables substituted. 

An examination of the Doyle tables shows that so far from being made 
from the actual cutting up of logs, or even from a carefully prepared 
diagram, which should give equally correct results, a novel and arbitrary 
rule of reckoning had been adopted, and that on logs of all sizes, a de- 
duction of four inches from the diameter, the remainder being then mul- 
tiplied by itself, in all cases gave the number of feet in a log sixteen feet 
in length. For example, a log twelve inches in diameter and sixteen feet 
long: 12—4=8X8=64 feet. Deducting one-eighth, or eight feet, gives fifty- 
six feet as the contents of the same log at fourteen feet long, and the 
addition of one-eighth gives seventy-two feet as the contents of the same 



56 LOG MEASUREMENTS. 



sized log at eighteen feet in length. It will not be denied by any thinking 
mind that if a deduction of four inches is correct for a log of twelve inches 
diameter, the same amount of deduction would be utterly dispropor- 
tionate in a log of forty-eight inches. If, however, the practical cutting 
up verified the correctness of the figures, then indeed might one be 
warranted in asserting that a universally correct method of arriving at 
the contents of saw logs has been practically demonstrated. 

That such is not the case the following carefully prepared table must 
convince the most incredulous. By means of a carefully prepared dia- 
gram of each size of logs from eight up to forty-eight inches, and from 
ten feet in length up to thirty feet, embracing all the lengths and diame- 
ters which are likely to enter into practical use, and after allowing a slab 
of one inch upon each side of the log, the following table has been pre- 
pared of the contents of each saw log of the sizes given, when cut into 
boards of one and one-sixteenth inch thickness, by a saw taking one quar- 
ter inch kerf, every board being square edged, and no lumber measured 
under five inches in width. 

Any reliable man familiar with the cutting up of saw logs is hereby 
challenged to disprove the assertion that astraight.log of any given dimen- 
sion, sawed as above stated, will yield the amount of lumber shown in 
the tables. Of course no allowance is made for the crooked or otherwise 
defective logs, for this would be encroaching upon the domain of the 
inspector, who is supposed to make the crooked straight in taking his 
diameters, and to allow for all other defects, such as rotten butts, at the 
same time. No good sawyer will criticise the allowance of one-quarter 
of an inch for saw kerf; it is enough, and the sawyer who cannot file and 
set his circular, mulay or gate saw to do good work at that amount of 
waste, is an unfit man for his position, while in gang mills, one-eighth of 
an inch is about the usual waste in kerf. In allowing one-sixteenth of an 
inch for plump lumber, an old and well established rule that all lumber 
should be cut to season to its intended thickness is adhered to. The 
tables are presented for the approval of those dealing in saw logs, with 
the assurance that in their preparation the interest of "neither buyer nor 
seller, as such, has been considered, the only object being to produce a 
table which would represent the actual quantity of lumber which a log 
will produce under the manipulation of an ordinarily competent sawyer. 
To enable comparisons between this and the other rules mentioned, a 
synopsis of the corresponding sizes and lengths of both the Doyle and 
Scribner tables will be found upon succeeding pages. 

The following diagram will show at a glance the manner in which the 
author has worked out each individual log. It is drawn on a scale of 
one-tenth of an inch to the foot, and shows the number of one and one- 
sixteenth inch boards which can be taken from a log of thirty inches 



LOG MEASUEEMENT3. 



w 



diameter, twelve feet in length, by the Lumberman's "Favorite" scale, 
which, since this book was first published, in 1877, has been quite gen- 
erally adopted by lumber and log men as the most equitable standard 
known. The actual cutting of the log into twenty-one boards, requiring 
twenty saw kerfs of one-fourth inch each, twenty lines of one-sixteenth 
excess, and two slabs of one inch each, equalling a deduction in the aggre- 




gate of eight and one-quarter inches from thirty inches, the diameter of 
the log, gives twenty-one and three-fourths inches, which, multiplied by 
itself, leaves a net result of 476 feet, against 474 feet, obtained in the cut- 
ting up in the manner shown — the loss of fractional parts of an inch ac- 
counting for the difference of the two feet. This fact effectually disproves 
the correctness of the Doyle rule, which gives the same log a measure- 
ment of 507 feet. Hickory rules for measuring logs after this scale may 
be obtained from the publishers of this book. 



m 



LOG MEASUREMENTS. 



LENGTH OF LOG, FEET. 



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•jl^: mL-oj^azTj; 



LOG MEASUREMENTS. 



Synopsis of Doyle's Log Rule. 



DIAMETER OIF 





10 

"27 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


11 


18 


12 


37 


48 


61 


75 


91 


108 


126 


147 
171 


14 


32 


43 


56 


71 


88 


106 


126 


144 


16 


36 


49 


64 


81 


100 


121 


144 


169 


196 


18 


41 


55 
61 


72 


91 


112 


136 


162 


190 


220 


20 


46 


80 


101 


125 


151 


180 
198 


211 


244 


22 


50 


67 


88 


111 


137 
150 


166 


232 


269 


24 


54 


74 


96 


122 


181 


216 


254 


294 


26 


59 


80 


104 


132 


163 


196 


234 


274 


318 


28 


63 


86 


112 


142 


175 


212 


252 


296 


342 


30 


68 


92 


120 


152 


188 


226 


270 


316 


368 



EIAMETEE, OE 





29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


~12~ 


469 


507 


547 


588 


631 


675 


721 


768 


817 


807 


14 


547 


591 


638 


686 


736 


787 


841 


896 


953 


1011 


16 


625 


676 


729 


784 


842 


900 


961 


1024 


1089 


1156 


18 


703 


761 


820 


882 


946 


1012 


1081 


1152 


1225 


1300 


20 


782 


845 


912 


980 


1052 


1125 


1202 


1280 


1361 


1446 


22 


860 


930 
1014 


1004 


1078 


1156 


1238 


1322 


1408 






24 


938 


1094 


1176 


1262 


1350 


1442 


1536 






26 


1016 


1098 


1184 


1274 


1368 


1462 


1562 


1664 






28 


1094 


1182 


1276 


1372 


1472 


1574 


1682 


1792 






30 


1172 


1266 


1366 


1470 


1578 


1688 


1802 


1920 





LOG MEASUREMENTS. 



Synopsis of Doyle's Log Rule. 



IiOG- 12<r IITCHES. 














19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 




T6~0 


I9z 


217 


243 


271 


300 


331 


303 


397 


432 


12 


197 


224 


253 


283 


313 


350 


386 


433 


463 


504 


14 


225 


256 


289 


324 


359 


400 


441 


484 


530 


576 


10 


253 


288 


325 


364 


406 


450 


496 


544 


596 


648 


18 


280 


320 


361 


404 


452 


500 


550 


605 


661 


720 


20 


309 


352 


397 


445 


496 


550 


605 


665 


726 


792 


22 


339 


384 


433 


486 


541 


600 


662 


726 


794 


864 


24 


366 


416 


470 


526 


586 


650 


716 


786 


860 


936 


20 


394 


418 


506 


566 


626 


700 


772 


866 


926 


1008 


28 


422 


480 


542 


606 


672 


750 


826 


906 


992 


1080 


30 



ILOG- I28T USTCIHIES. 



1 

39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


41 


48 




910 


97-Z 


1027 


1083 


L141 


1200 


1261 


1323 


1387 


L452 


~12~ 


1070 


1134 


1198 


1264 


1331 


1400 


1471 


1544 


1618 


1694 


14 


1225 


1296 


1369 


1444 


1521 


1600 


1681 


1764 


1849 


1936 


16 


1379 


1458 


1541 


1625 


1711 


1800 


1891 


1985 


2080 


2178 


18 


L530 


1620 


1712 


1805 














20 






















22 






















24 




















26 


1 ^ 






~ 















28 








1 30 

! j 



SHINGLE MANUFACTURE. 



SHINGLE MANUFACTURE. 



The manufacture of shingles is practically the same in all sections of 
the country, and comprises the two classes of breasted, usually spoken of 
as shaved, and sawed shingles. 

Breasted or shaved shingles are, in white pine, usually eighteen inches in 
length, the standard thickness being five shingles to two and one half 
inches in thickness at the butt, and one-sixteenth inch at the point. Some- 
times, though of late but seldom, they are made a full half inch thick at 
the butt. In some markets, notably as we go South, we find some white 
pine shingles twenty-four inches long, with butts of five-eighths and points 
of one-eighth inch. The cypress and cedar shingles of Virginia and fur» 
ther South are largely of twenty, twenty-four and thirty inches length by 
one-half inch butt. 

A breasted shingle should be of full length with square ends, even thick- 
ness of butt, and uniform points, with no clips at the point. The dressing 
or breasting should be perfectly smooth, as though planed, and free from 
ridges or grooves. Nothing less than a standard shingle four inches 
wide should be packed in the bunch, although an occasional three inch is 
not criticised. The edges should be perfectly square, unless, as practiced 
by some first-class makers, they are uniformly beveled so that one 
edge will fit the next with a partial overlay. 

Breasted shingles are usually packed in bunches of 500, or two bunches 
to the thousand, the bunches being packed twenty-four inches wide (six 
shingles) by forty-two courses at each end. Cypress and other extra 
length shingles are packed in round bunches of 100 shingles each. Clip- 
ped and imperfectly breasted shingles are classed as No. 2, or Common. 
Shaved shingles of less than seven-sixteenths butt must be uniform and 
nice to be admitted to the brand of No. 1, or Extra. 

Sawed shingles are manufactured at different points, of different sizes. 
Michigan produces for the eastern and southern trade nothing but eigh- 
teen inch shingles, while the Chicago and western trade demands only 
sixteen inch shingles. Some markets use fourteen inch and even twelve 
inch lengths. 

The best sawed shingles are made from split quartered white pine, al- 
though the practice of quartering with a saw is an extended one. In the 
hands of an inexperienced sawyer a sawed block will often be made to 
turn out bastard shingles, which are objectionable, and, infact, worthless 



SHINGLE MANUFACTURE. 



upon a roof. Shingles should always be sawed with, and not across the 
grain. The inspection of shingles of all lengths is the same. Eighteen inch 
are always sawed five to two and one-fourth inches at the butt, one-six- 
teenth points, except on special orders for cuts of five to two inches. 
Sixteen inch shingles are cut five to two inches at the butt, with one-six- 
teenth inch points. 

There are so many designations given to shingles by various manufac- 
turers, that it would be impolitic to give anything but standard classifi- 
cations. Strictly first-class shingles are always entitled to a brand of 
XXX, and in bunches so marked should be found only shingles of full 
length, full thicknesses and uniform points; free from all rot, shake, sap, 
knots, worm-holes, bastards or defects of any nature; they should be 
packed in uniform bunches of 250 shingles, four inches wide always be- 
ing the standard shingle. All shingles the manufacturers of which have 
adopted fancy brands, such as " Star," " Extra," etc., should come up to 
the standard given for XXX. 

No shingle should be packed in a bunch of No. 2 shingles which is not 
free from all defects, sap included, to such extent that the shingle is 
perfect for at least six inches from the butt, and the defects from that to 
the point must be of a character which will forbid the passage of water 
through the shingles. These are by some makers branded "six inch 
clears," while a brand of " ten inch clear," or twelve inch clear," denotes 
a shingle free from defects for the length indicated, measuring from the 
butt. As a rule no shingles can be considered marketable which will not 
lay five inches to the weather in eighteen inches, and four inches to the 
weather in sixteen inches, without showing defects at the butt; eighteen 
inch XXX are usually laid six inches to the weather, and sixteen inch XXX 
are laid from four and a half to five inches to the weather. 

It is not uncommon, however, to pack the coarse shingles in bunches 
marked No, 2, where the brands of XXX for the best, and X or XX for the 
clear butts is adopted. In connection with the brand ' 'A" largely in vogue 
in the West, "choice A" is the equivalent of XXX, and is better than 
" standard A" only in some minor respects more fictitious than real, for 
anything which deserves the name standard is supposed in shingles to 
mean tbe best, and custom of many years standing has decreed that XXX 
shall always be a standard or choice shingle. 

"Shaded A" may represent a clear butt of six, ten or twelve inches, 
but if the grade is below XXX, be it so called, or be it known as choice or 
standard, it is a No. 2, and its value can be fixed only by knowing to what 
extent the manufacturer looked upon defects as admissable in packing. 

The main defects in shingles of any length may be summed up as fol- 
lows : Bad sawing, the butts not running of even thickness, and the 
points being clipped or feathered. Bastard sawing, by which the grain of 



64 SHINGLE MANUFACTUKE. 

the timber runs across the shingles in circles instead of straight with the 
length. Bad jointing, so that one end is wider than the other, or by leav- 
ing sap, no matter how slight, or any other defects upon a XXX shingle 
or its equivalent by any name. Bad packing, leaving open spaces between 
the shingles : putting shingles that are defective in a bunch of XXX; allow- 
ing sap streaks, small knots, shake, rot, bad jointing, clips, or shingles 
sawed thinner or thicker than their mates, in a bunch along side with 
them; packing shingles narrower than three inches, or a large number of 
that width in a bunch; mixing in hard, glassy timber, doty timber, worm 
eaten or discolored shingles. No brand of shingles need hope to obtain 
a good reputation in any market where the sorting and packing has not 
been as carefully performed as it would be if the buyer stood by the pack- 
ing frame and inspected each shingle separately. Manufacturers cannot 
too strongly impress upon their packers the fact that every shingle in a 
bunch must be, and is, by the brand, considered as warranted to be per- 
fect in the grade in which it is packed, and nothing will so soon take a 
half dollar off the price of a lot of shingles, as the finding of three or four 
defective pieces in a bunch. When a roof is shingled, there should not be 
found a single discarded shingle among the debris, and when a manufac- 
turer brands his shingles with any of the marks denoting the highest 
grade, it is understood by the brand that every shingle is perfect. 

A word to mill men on sawing. Never allow a wood butcher to handle 
a shingle saw; he will spoil more shingles and damage your reputation 
more than you can estimate. Discard your shingle saw and have it re- 
ground as soon as it wears to fourteen guage, unless you prefer to cut 
your timber into sawdust rather than shingles. The thinner sawyou can 
use the more profit in timber. It pays to get first-class drag saw machin- 
ery and sawyers, as well as first-class shingle sawyers— a poor hand is 
dear, even if he works for nothing and boards himself. A jointer can 
make a difference of one-third the day's cut by putting the timber in the 
shaving heap, or by using judgment and trimming only so much as is 
needed, but always doing that. If you have more than two packers it will 
pay to keep an assorter to help and to watch them. 

Weights of shingles differ according to the character and specific grav- 
ity of the timber from which they are cut. In ordinary white pine a car 
load of 22,000 pounds of green shingles will be about as follows : 

18 Inch, Green, 52,000 to 55,000 I 16 Inch Green, 60,000 to 65,000 
18 " Dry... 60,000 •' 65,000 | 16 " Dry. . .70,000 " 75,000 

The above for an average. The writer has loaded 90,000 eighteen inch 
shaved shingles, five butts to two and one-fourth inches, shingles one 
year old. seasoned under cover, on a ten ton rate. One thousand shingles 
should lay one square, or a space of ten feet by ten feet. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 65 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE, 



Under this head we present a series of practical plans and suggestions 
for cheap buildings, adapted to the wants of farm and village residents, 
which may be found of value to the retail lumberman and builder. It 
is not intended for a treatise on theoretical Architecture ; the design has 
been to afford some practical hints to those who are not supposed to be 
familiar with the subject, for the construction of a class of buildings 
too cheap to admit of securing plans from an architect, and which have 
not hitherto been considered of sufficient importance to be accorded a 
place in the numerous expensive works upon Architecture. 

The manner in which the plans given in the following pages were ob- 
tained particularly commends them to lumbermen and builders. Nearly 
every design was furnished or suggested to the editor of the North* 
western Lumberman by subscribers to that paper in different parts of 
the country, and in every case they represent buildings which have been 
constructed in those localities, and are there considered models, in their 
way, either of neatness, or economy, or both. The elevations or perspec- 
tive views were not furnished, but from the ground plans and general in- 
terior arrangement, the architect has prepared them with reference to 
making the best appearance for the least money possible. In each case, 
the name and residence of the person furnishing the design is given, and 
in this connection the reader is urgently requested to send any criticisms, 
or improvements upon any of them that may be suggested, to the editor 
of the Lumberman, 154 Lake Street, Chicago, who will gladly give them 
attention, and embody them in future editions of this little book. Any 
new plans will also be duly appreciated. 

The bill of material required to construct a building after any of the 
plans given, will undoubtedly meet with more or less criticism and differ- 
ence of opinion. It is well known, however, that no two architects or 
builders would figure such a bill precisely alike. The essentials points to 
make the building reasonable in price have been studiously observed. But 
it must be borne in mind that much depends upon the locality and sur- 
rounding conditions. In one place, for example, good stone for founda- 
tions may be had for the gathering; in others, not without considerable 
expense. Brick may be cheap or costly, according to the quality of the 
soil; and, most important of all, lumber may cost much or little, accord- 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



ing to the distance from its point of production. For this reason, no at- 
tempt has been made to give the probable cost of any of the buildings; 
it will be governed entirely by local surroundings. 

Again, no one of the designs as they are given may suit the prospective 
builder, in which event they may be taken as suggestions merely. The 
uses and arrangement of rooms can be altered from those indicated. Ad- 
ditional doors and windows can be cut, or positions of them changed. 
In many cases double or -bay windows would be an improvement. All 
chimneys are figured from the ground up ; the amount of material would 
be increased by the introduction of fire-places or grates, and diminished 
by supporting them near the ceiling by brackets or otherwise. Verandas 
can be taken off or added; and, in some cases, halls can be incorporated 
into the rooms. Closets can be added, and such other alterations or ad- 
ditions made as are required, which any lumber dealer can readily make, 
and keep the run of the necessary material, more or less, in so doing. One 
man may want his house finished up cheaper and another more expen- 
sively than the plans call for, but from the basis herein given it will be 
found of comparatively little trouble for even. those entirely unused to 
making such figures to make the requisite alterations. Thus, one man 
might want a house sheathed all over, while another would do away with 
the greater part of that expense; one would build a brick or stone found- 
ation, if those materials were accessible, while another would economize 
by setting his building on posts; one would have the joists or studding a 
foot or more further apart than another, and would think his house un- 
safe without six, or eight by eight timber for sills, while another would 
be perfectly contented with the " box" or " Nebraska " pattern, which is 
much cheaper, as is explained in detail further on; one would want a 
great deal more finishing lumber used than another and so on. In con- 
nection with the plans various suggestions have been made which may 
be found useful. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



67 



Design 1. 

Furnished by S. S. Lowe, Fremont, Neb, 




Material Required for Design 1. 

2 ps. 6x6 12s. 3 6x6 14s, 2 6x6 22s, for sills; 54 ps. 2x4 14s. studding for 
main wing; 30 ps. 2x4 8s, studding for kitchen wing; 30 ps. 2x8 14s, for 
joist; 20 ps. 2x4 16s, for rafters; 34 ps 2x4 10s, for rafters; 1,000 ft. floor- 
ing; 1,500 ft. siding; 1,300 ft. sheathing, rough; 150 yards paper; 8,000 
shingles ; 500 ft. shingle strips; 4ps. 4x4 10s, for porch posts; 5.000 lath; 
350 yds. plastering; 1,000 brick; 268 ft. 6 inch base ; 14 4-ft posts for foun- 
dation; 11 doors, 9 windows, casings, etc., glass 12x28; 150 ft. cornice 
moulding. 



^ 2ZI0* 




Second Floor. Design 1. Ground Floor. 

By opening the closet on the lower floor into the kitchen, instead of into 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



the bedroom, a small pantry will be obtained, from which a stairway can 
lead to a cellar, if desired. A large front chamber can be made above by 
omitting the closet and carrying the partition clear across the house, with 
a door at the head of the stairs. Instead of the 6x6 sills, 2 2x8 12s, 2 2x6 
12s, 3 2x8 14s, 3 2x6 14s, 2 2x8 22s and 2 2x6 22s can be used to make the 
" Nebraska sill." 



Design 2.— Original. 




Design 2. 



Second Eloob. 



Ground Flook. 

One chimney can be made to serve for the wing, by having it begin in 
the partition in the second story, the pipes from below passing through 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



the floor. Three large rooms can be obtained on the lower floor by mov- 
ing the partition between the kitchen and living room toward the ell, and, 
instead of the kitchen given in the plan, have a pantry 4x6 ft. and a wood 
house or laundry 6x9. Also extend the bedroom to the stairway, and con- 
nect by a door with the kitchen. It could then be utilized as a dining room. 
Material Required for Design 2. 

63 ps. 2x4 14s; 54 ps. 2x4 16s; 30 ps. 2x4 10s; 19 ps. 2x4 8s; 37 ps. 2x4 8s, 
for studding; 39 ps. 2x10 16s; 32 ps. 2x8 14s, floor joist; 27 ps. 2x4 12s; 
16 ps. 2x4 14s, ceiling joists; 32 ps. 2x4 10s; 39 ps. 2x4 12s, for rafters: 4 
posts, 4x4x8, for porch; 4 posts, 6x6x3, under porch; 2.700 rough sheath- 
ing, sides and roof; 8,000 shingles ; 7,500 lath ; 300 yds. paper, sides and roof; 
430 ft, 6 inch base; 24 posts, 4 ft. long, foundations; 3,200 ft, siding; 1,350 
ft. flooring; 1,500 brick; 512 yds plastering; 17 doors, 15 windows, casings^; 
Glass, 4-light, 14x48 main windows; 81ts., 12x18, small windows; 1651ineal 
ft. cornice moulding; 156 lineal ft. 6x6 tor sills. 



Design 3. 

Furnished by Hamlin & Ford, Watertown, Wi 




Required for Design 3. 



70 ps. 2x4 16s, studdings for main part: 36 ps. 2x4 16s for main parti- 
tions; 37 ps. 2x4 9s, studding for wing; 56 ps. 2x8 16s. and 33 ps. 2x6 16s, 
for joists; 20 ps. 2x4 9s. and 44 ps. 2x4 12s, for rafters ; 132 ft. 2x8. 200 ft. 
2x4 wall plates; 4 posts 4x4, 16; 2 posts 4x4, 9; 300 lineal ft, bridging and 
plates, 1x3; 1,000 ft. dressed roof boards; 1.600 ft. sheathing; 32 bunches 
shingles; 45 lineal ft. 6 in. ridee boards; 1.200ft. flooring, 1,850 ft. siding: 
650 ft. select boards ; 50 ft. 1% select corner strips ; 160 ft. 8-in. base. 160 ft. 
6-in.base, 2 cellarwindows, frames and sash: 3 outside doorframes, doors 
and casings; 10 inside door frames, 14 window frames, sash and casings; 
10,000 brick for foundation and chimneys; 450 yards lath and plastering. 



70 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 







CHAMBER, 
1^0"Xt5'0' 



Design 3. 

Design 4. 

Furnished by J. G. Bettleheim, Brookfield, Mo. 




This would make a convenient plan for a story and a half house by- 
raising and lengthening the main part, and running a stairway from the 
kitchen, between the living room and bed room. 

Material Required for Design 4. 

1.650 brick for chimney; 347 yds. of plastering; 195 ps. 2x4 14s, studding; 
26 ps. 2x4 14s, 18 ps. 2x4 12s, rafters; 8 ps, 2x8 16s, 10 ps. 2x8 14s, 10 ps. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



71 



2x8 10s, 13 ps. 2x6 14s. 13 ps. 2x6 10s. 13 ps. 2x6 16s, for joists: 160 lineal ft. 
2x8 for sills; 134 lineal ft. 2x4 for plates; 150 lineal ft. 1x3 for bridging; 
2,800 ft. sheathing; 2,040 ft. y 2 -in. siding; 9,000 shingle; 875 ft. of flooring; 




Design 4. 

660 ft. 1-in. finishing lumber; SO ft. 1%-in. finishing lumber; T doors, 2- 
6x6-10x1%, 10 windows. 12-light. 12x16; 4 posts for porch, 6x6 10s ; 15 
posts for house, 8x8 4s ; 5.000 lath. 



Design 5. 

Furnished by J. G. Bettleheim, Brookfield, Mo. 




72 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



Material Required for Design 5. 

2,100 brick for chimneys; 680 yds. plastering; 168 lineal ft. 6x6 sills; 108 
ps. 2x4 18s, and 66 ps. 2x4 10s for studs; 60 ps. 2x8 14s and 15 ps. 2x8 16s 
for floor joists; 20 ps. 2x4 12s and 10 ps. 2x4 16s for ceiling; 300 lineal ft, 
bridging and ribbon, 1x3; 7 ps. 2x4 16s rafters; 92 lineal ft. 2x4 plates: 
600 ft. sheathing; 14,000 shingles; 2,600 ft. siding; 1,350 ft. flooring; 500 ft 
select for trimming; 3 posts under porch, 6x6x3 ft.; 22 posts under house 
6x6x5 ft.; 3 posts on"poreh, 4x4x9 ft.; 5 windows, 12-light, 12x16; 9 win 
dows, 12-light, 12x14; 1 double door. 5-0x7-6x1%; 1 front door, 3-6x6-10x1% 
10 doors, 2-8x6-10x1%; 4 doors, 2-6x6-10x1%; transom over front door, 2 
light, 16x18; small window in each main gable, 4-light, 10x12. 



1 

SITTING ROOM, 


PARLOR, 
1^X13' 


m 




- <il.05ET. 1 - - 


HAU. 




', PANTRY.' 1 l*<^. 








KITCHEN, 
U r Xi4' , 


m 






• T" Ji— 








CL03ET.1 

"™H Bed Room,' 


■ 






| * sTxsio" 
"1- 


r * 









I ^6'rf 



Ground Floor. 




Design 5. 



Second Story. 



These specifications provide for one window not shown in the plan, viz. : 
one in the pantry. A bay in place of the double window and a portico at 
the front door would be desirable changes. 



To find the number of bricks required in a building : Rule— Multiply 
he number of cubic feet by 22^. The number of cubic feet is found by 
multiplying the length, height and thickness (in feet) together. Bricks 
are usually made 8 inches long, 4 inches wide and 2 inches thick; hence 
it requires 27 bricks to make a cubic foot without mortar, but it is gen- 
erally assumed that the mortar fills 1-6 of the space. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



73 



Design 6. 

Furnished by J. S. McFeeters, Bedford, Ind. 




*— ■ .17<0" - 

Ground Floor— Design 6. 



74 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 




Second Floor— Design 6. 
Material Required for Design 6. 

2,500 brick for chimney: 50 yds. plastering; 1.600 ft. flooring; 6,000 ft. 
sheathing; 4.500 ft. siding; 20.C00 shingles: 184 lineal ft. 6x6 sills: 100 ps. 
2x4 14s 6^5 ps 2x4 10s, and 126 ps. 2x4 Ss, for studs; 80 lineal ft. 2x4 for 
plates;' 16 ps. 2x6 16s. and 74 ps. 2x8 14s for floor joists; 36 ps. 2x4 12s for 
ceiling: 38 ps. 2x6 12s, and 24 ps. 2x6 18s for rafters; 400 lineal ft. 1x3 
for bridging, etc.; 6 windows. 8-light. 12x18; 3 windows, 12-hght 12x16; 
6 windows, 8-light, 12x14; 1 door, 3-0x6-10x1%; 4 doors, 2-8x6-10x1%; 8 
doors, 2-6x6-10x1%: 5 doors, 2-2x5-6x1%; 4 posts, 4x4x3 ft., 4 posts, 4x4x9 
ft.; 22 posts, 6x6x5 ft.; 400 ft. of select. 



Partitions unsupported from underneath the floors should be supported 
from the walls by means of a simple truss. This can be made by setting 
two pieces of scantling into the walls on either side, at the floor, to 
abutt against each other at the ceiling or against a collar-beam over the 
doors. Thi3 plan will obviate the sinking of floors so often seen under 
partitions. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



75 



Design 7— Original. 





BED ROOM, 
10'X16" 



BED ROOM, 
12^X13" 




Ground Fdoor. Design 7. Second Floor. 

Material Required for Design 7. 

110 lineal ft. 6x6, for sills; 100 ps. 2x4 14s, for studs: 52 ps. 2x8 14s, for 
floor joists; 26ps.2x4 14s, for ceiling joists; 250 lineal ft. 1x3, bridging. 



76 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



etc.; 26 ps. 2x4 10s, for rafters; 55 lineal ft. 2x4 plates; 2,100 ft. sheathing; 
6,000 shingles: 1,600 ft. siding; 850 ft. flooring (surface measure); 200 ft. 
select for trimming; 13 posts 6x6x5 ft., under house; 10 windows, 12-light, 
12x14; 1 window, 8 light, 10x14; 8 doors, 2-8x6-10x1% : 2 doors, 2-6x6-10x1%, 
1 door, 2-8x6-10x1%, front: transom front door, 2-light 12x16: 960 brick for 
chimney; 410 yards plastering 

These specifications call for 6x6 sills, but the framed sill can be substi 
tuted with either stone or post foundation. 



Design 8. 

Furnished by B. F. Blaker, Pleasanton, Kansas. 




Material Required for Design 8. 



2,400 brick for chimneys; 700 yds. plastering; 166 lineal ft. 6x6 sills (un- 
der center of main part, so as to use 10-ft. joists); 156 ps. 2x4 18s studs; 
42ps.2x6 10s, and 22 ps. 2x8 14s for floor joists; 52 ps. 2x4 14s for ceil- 
ing; 300 lineal ft. 1x3 for bridging and rihbons; 30 ps. 2x4 16s. and 16 ps. 
2x4 10s for rafters; 84 lineal ft., 2x4 plates; 3,800 ft. sheathing; 11,000 
3,200 ft. siding; 1,750 ft. flooring; 600 ft. select for trimming; 4posts under 
porches, 6x6 3 ft.; 22 posts under house, 6x8 5 ft.; 4 posts on porch, 4x4 
10 ft.; 3 windows, 6-light, 12x32; 3 windows, 12-light, 12x16; 1 windows- 
light, 12x16; bay window, 6-light, 12x32, and 4-light, 16x32; 5 windows, 
6-light. 12x28; 5 windows. 12-light, 12x14: 12 doors, 2-8x6-10x1%; 1 door, 
2-2x6-10x1%; 1 door, 2-10x6-10x1% (front) ; transom over front door, 2- 
light, 16x14; window, each end main gable, 4-light, 10x16. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



77 




Ground Floor— Design 8. 




Second Story— Design 8. 



78 



rural architecture. 

Design 9. 



Furnished by B. F. Blaker, Pleasa 



Kan. 




Ground Floor — Design 9. 
Material Required for Design 9. 
1,680 brick for chimneys; 220 yds. plastering; 120 lineal ft. 6x6 sills; 124 
ps. 2x4 12s for studs; 20 ps. 2x8 14s floor joists, 2 ft. apart; 30 ps. 2x4 14s 
ceiling joists; 200 lineal ft. for bridging, etc., 1x3; 32 ps. 2x4 10s for rafters; 
110 lineal ft. 2x4 for plates; 2,200 ft. sheathing; 8,500 shingles; 1,400 ft. 
siding (surface); 650 ft. flooring; 330 ft. select for trimming; 2 posts un- 
der porch, 4x6 3 ft.; 20 posts under house, 6x6 5 ft.; 2 posts on porch, 



RUKAL ARCHITECTURE. 



79 



4x4 9 ft.; 6 windows, 8-Hght, 10x14; 4 doors, 2-6x6-10x1%; small window, 
each end main gable, 4-light, 10x10; 3,500 lath. 

The outside dimensions of this house should be 14x26 and 14x14, with 
interior dimensions altered to correspond. 



Design 10. 

Furnished by Carnagie, Prescott & Co., Portage, Wis. 




Design 10. 
Material Required for Design 10. 

2,700 brick for chimneys; 500 yds. plastering; 1,500 ft. flooring; 3,000 
ft. sheathing; 15,000 shingles; 1,850 ft, siding; 69 ps. 2x4 14s, 34 ps. 2x4 9s, 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



115 ps. 2x4 8s for studs; 155 lineal ft. 6x6 sills; 70 ps. 2x8 16s, floor joists; 
48 ps. 2x4 16s, for ceiling joists; 31 ps. 2x4 14s, and 16 ps. 2x4 16s. rafters; 
3C0 lineal ft. 1x3, bridging, etc.; 93 lineal ft. 2x4 plates; 4 windows, 8-light, 
10x16; 6 windows, 8-light, 12x14; 2 windows, 4-light, 12x14; 4 windows, 
6-light, 12x16: 2 doors. 2-4x6-10x1%; 3 doors, 2-10x6-10x1%; 4 doors, 2- 
8x6-10x1% ; 4 doors, 2-6x6-10x1% ; 400 ft, select. 



Design 11. 

Furnishsd by Carnagie, Prescott & Co., Portage, Wi 




Material Required for Design 11. 

2,200 brick for chimnevs; 600 yds. plastering; 148 lineal ft. 6x6 sills; 28 
ds. 2x4 9s, and 128 ps. 2x4 16s for studs; 26 ps. 2x8 16s and 26 ps. 2x8 12s, 
andSps. 2x8 14s for floor joists; 14 ps. 2x4 16 and 14 ps. 2x4 12s, and8ps. 
2x4 14s for ceiling joists; 300 lineal ft, 1x3 for bridging; 45 ps.2x4 14s, and 
13 ps. 2x4 12s for rafters; 100 lineal ft, 2x4 plates; 20,000 shingles; 4,000 
tf. sheathing; 2,300 ft. siding (surface) ; 1,3P0 ft, flooring; 3 posts, 4x43 ft.; 
3 posts, 4x4 9 ft.; 21 posts, 6x6 5 ft.; 3 6-light, 12x16. and 1 6-light, 14x16 
for bay windows; 7 windows, 12-light, 12x16; 4 windows, 12-light, 12x14; 
5 windows, 8-light, 12x14; 4 doors, 2-10x6-10x1%; 6 doors, 2-8x6-10x1% ; 6 
doors, 2-6x6-10x%; 2 doors, 2-6x7-0x1% ; 300 ft. select. 

If light is wished in the pantry, it could change position wi';h the closet 



To find the number of shingles required in a roof : Rule— Multiply the 
number of square feet in the roof by 8, if the shingles are exposed 4^ 
inches, or by 7 1-5 if exposed 5 inches. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



81 



fr„.....-j».~- 




Design 12. 

Furnished by Carnagie, Prescott & Co., Portage, Wis. 




RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 




Second Story— Design 12. 
Material Required for Design 12. 

3,500 bricks for chimneys; 1.150 yds. plastering: 2,100 ft. flooring; 5,504 
ft. sheathing; 3.800 ft. siding; 23.000 shingles; 226 lineal ft. 6x6 sills; 90 
lineal ft. 2x4 plates; 500 lineal ft. 1x3 bridging, etc.; 124 ps. 2x4 18s, 48 ps. 
2x4 14s, 58 ps. 2x4 9s, 128 ps. 2x4 8s, for studs; 26 ps. 2x8 14s, and 92 ps. 
2x8 16s, for floor joists; 13ps. 2x414s, and 46 ps. 2x4 16s, forceiling joists; 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



83 



24 ps. 2x6 18s. 12 ps. 2x4 12s, and 18 ps. 2x4 16s for rafters; 500 ft. select 
for trimming; 4 windows, 8-light, 12x16; 5 windows, 12- light, 12x16; 1 
window. S-light, 10x14, 11 windows. 12-light, 10x14; 4 windows, 8-light, 
12x14; 4 doors, 2-10x6-10x1% ; 4 doors, 2-6x7-6x1% ; 8 doors, 2-8x6-10x1% ; 
19 doors, 2-6x6-10x1% ; 4 doors, 2-4x6-0x1% ; 1 post 4x4x3 ft. ; 1 post 4x4x9 
ft. ; 33 posts, 6x6x5 ; 4 transom, each 2-light, 15x16. The extreme outside 
measurement of this house is 36x47 ft. 

Plan 12 is of a house designed to accommodate a large family in a very 
comfortable manner, and yet at a comparatively small expense. It is 
thoroughly provided with closets, etc., and all parts are convenient of 
access. Probably any person adopting it would make some changes, 
while following the general plan. The number of rooms could be reduced, 
and some enlarged. It is suggested that the front entrance be omitted, 
and the side entrance connected with the stairway by a hall. 



Design 13. 

Furnished by Edwards, Weaver & Co., Aledo, III. 




Material Required for Design 13. 

3,200 brick for chimneys ; 660 yds. plastering; 1.400 ft. flooring; 4.300 
ft. sheeting ; 3,500 ft. siding ; 14,000 shingles ; 40 ft. tin roof; 147 lineal ft, 
6x6 sills ; 106 lineal ft. 2x4 plates ; 300 lineal ft. 1x3 bridging, etc. ; 84 ps. 
2x4 20s, 35 ps. 2x4 14s, 58ps.2x410s, and 14 ps. 2x4 8s for studs ; 77 ps. 2x8 
14s for floor joists ; 34 ps. 2x4 12s for ceiling joists ; 29 ps. 2x4 10s, and 26 
ps. 2x4 12s for rafters ; 500 ft, select for trimming; 3 doors, 2-10x7-6x1% ; 
2 doors, 2-6x8-0x1% ; 3 doors, 2-8x7-6x1% ; 9 doors, 2-6x6-10x1% ; 5 win- 
dows, 12-light, 12x18 ; 2 windows, 8-light, 10x16 ; 4 windows. 8-light, 16x18 ; 
2 windows, 8-light, 16x18, and 2 windows, 4-light, 18x18 for bay ; 5 win- 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



dows, 12-light, 12x14; 2 windows, 8-light. 12x14; 1 window, 6-light, 12x14 ; 
2 posts, 4x4 3 ft ; 2 posts, 4x4 10 ft. ; 28 posts, 6x6 5 ft. ; 3 transoms, each 
2-light, 15x18. 




Design 13. 
This plan we consider a particularly fine one in arrangement, but should 
be placed in a position which does not require a well defined front. The 
front of the house, as far as arrangement is concerned, is that turned to 
the left in the perspective view. If the house is to occupy a prominent 
position, its appearance would be much improved by making the front 16 
feet wide and 2 full stories high, and putting a bay window in front of the 
parlor, and transferring the chimney to the side. 



Tin roofing is measured by the square of 100 superficial feet; hips, val- 
leys and flashings, by the foot lineal. 

A box of roofing tin contains 112 sheets, 14x20 Inches, and weighs from 
110 to 145 pounds per box. The Pontymiester, M. F. and other good 
brands of I. C. charcoal tin, weighing an average of 112 pounds per box, 
or 1 pound per sheet, and X tin 140 pounds per box, or \% pounds per 
sheet. Roofing tin can now be had double size, or 20x28 inches, weighing, 
I. C. 225 pounds per box, and X tin 285 pounds per box. This latter size 
is the most economical in its use, saving the material and labor of one- 
fourth of the seams and ribs, 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



Design 14. 

Furnished by W. Menefee. Boswell, Ir.d. 




Design 14. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



Material Required for Design 14. 

2,200 brick for chimneys; 640 yds. plastering; 198 lineal ft. Gx6 sills ; 
170 ps. 2x4 16s for studs ; 4.3 ps. 2x6 10s, 50 ps. 2x8 14s, and 26 ps. 2x6 8s 
for floor joists ; 26 ps. 2x4 10s, 25 ps. 2x4 14s, and 13 ps. 2x4 8s for ceiling ; 
500 lineal ft, 1x3 for bridging, etc. ; 32 ps. 2x4 14s, 17 ps. 2x4 16s, 19 ps. 
2x4 10s for rafters; 134 linear ft. 2x4 plates; 3,500 ft. sheathing; 14,000 
shingles; 2,350 ft. flooring ; 2.500 ft. siding; 600 ft. select; 2 posts, 4x4 3 
ft. ; 2 posts, 4x4 9 ft. ; 26 posts, 6x6 5 ft. ; 6 windows. 12-light, 12x16 ; 9 
windows, 12-light, 12x14 ; 3 windows, 8-light, 12x16 ; 8-light window, 12x16, 
and 8-light window 14x16 for bay ; 2 doors, '2-10x7-6x1% ; 11 doors, 2-8x6^ 
10x1% ; 4 doors, 2-6x6-10x1%. 



Design 15. 




Material Required for Design 15. 

1.800 brick for chimneys ; 525 yds. plastering ; 1,300 ft. flooring ; 3,000 ft. 
sheathing ; 2,000 ft. siding- ; 13,000 shingles ; 80 ps. 2x4 16 ft., 40 ps. 2x4 9 
ft., 68 ps. 2x4 8 ft. for studs ; 98 lineal ft. 2x4 for plates ; 144 lineal ft. 6x6 
for sills ; 58 ps. 2x8 14s, and 17 ps. 2x6 8s for floor joists ; 29 ps. 2x4 14s, 
and 17 ps. 2x4 8s for ceiling ; 38 ps. 2x4 14s, and 12 ps. 2x4 10s for rafters ; 
250 lineal ft. 1x3 for bridging, etc. ; 8-light window, 14x16, and 16-light 
window, 10xlb r for bay; 7 windows, 12-light, 10x16 ; 6 windows, 12-light, 
10x14; 1 door, 3-0x6-10x1% ; 2 doors, 2-4x6-10x1% ; 4 doors, 2-8x6-10x1% ; 
9 doors, 2-6x6-10x1% ; 1 post, 4x4 3 ft. ; 1 post, 4x4 9 ft. ; 20 posts, 6x6 5 ft. ; 
1 window, 2-light, 12x24; 300 ft. select. 

Plan No. 15 is designed for a cheap city or village residence, where space 
is limited. It is but 23 feet wide on the outside, and has a very conven- 
ient arrangement of rooms. The wing, when another house adjoins it, 
would be better built with a flat roof, and if the house is isolated, the 
wing should have a gable roof with the ridge over the stair-was 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



87 




KITCHEN, 



SITTfNG ROOM.' PARLOR, 

12X14 . ,2XI4 



LIU k 




GROUND FLOOR 




SECOND FU30R. 
Design 15. 



Putty, in plastering, is a very fine cement made of lime only. It is thus 
prepared: dissolve in a small quantity of water, as two or three gallons, 
an equal quantity of fresh lime, constantly stirring it with a stick until the 
lime be entirely slaked, and the whole becomes of a suitable consistency, 
so that when the stick is taken out of it, it will but just drop therefrom; 
this, being sifted or run through a hair sieve, to take out the gross parts 
of the lime, is fit for use. Putty differs from fine stuff in the manner of 
preparing it, and in its being used without hair. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



Design 16— Original. 




Design 16. 

Material Required for Design 16. 

1,800 brick for chimneys; 800 yds. plastering; 2,200 ft. flooring; 3,450 
ft. sheathing ; 2,450 ft. siding; 12,000 shingles; 2y 2 sq. tin roof; 175 p 
2x4 16s. for studs ; 128 lineal ft. 2x4 plates ; 192 lineal ft. 6x6, sills ; 100 p 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



2x8 14s, floor joist; 50 ps. 2x4 14s, ceiling; 48 ps. 2x4 12s, and 13 ps. 2xS 
16s, rafters ; 250 lineal ft. 1x3 bridging, etc. ; 4 posts, 4x4 3 ft. ; 4 posts, 
4x4 8 ft. ; 22 posts, 6x6 5 ft. ; 4 windows, ±2-light, 10x18 ; 7 windows, 12- 
light, 12x16 ; 11 windows. 6-light, 10x16 ; 2 windows, 2-light, 12x16 ; 2 doors, 
2-10x6-10x1% ; 5 doors, 2-8x6-10x1% ; 11 doors, 2-6x6-10x1 y 8 ; 500 ft. select. 
In this house the square form is used as it contains the most room pos- 
sible for a given amount of material. Each bedroom is provided with a 
closet, and the partitions in the second story, with one exception, rest on 
those below, thus preventing any sinking of floors. 



Design 17. 

Furnished by Wilhelm & Martin, New Waterford, Ohio. 




Material Required for Design 17. 

2,700 brick for chimneys ; 540 yds. plastering; 1,350 ft. flooring; 3,900 
ft. sheathing; 2.800 ft. siding; 15,000 shingles ; 96 ps. 2x4 18s for studs; 
162 lineal ft. 6x6 for sills; 62 ps. 2x4 9s for studs; 94 lineal ft. 2x4 for 
plates; 60ps.2x8 16s for floor joists; 40 ps. 2x4 16s for ceiling joists ; 50 ps. 
2x4 14s for rafters; 250 lineal ft. 1x3 for bridging, etc. ; 3 posts, 4x4 3 ft. ; 
3 posts, 4x4 9 ft. ; 19 posts. 6x6 5 ft. ; 8 windows, 4-light, 12x30 ; 3 windows 
4-light, 12x14 ; 8 windows, 4-lieht, 12x28; 2 doors. 2-8x6-8x1%; 8 doors, 
2-6x6 8x1% ; 400 ft. select for trimmings. 



Dry sand weighs, per cubic foot, 95 pounds, quick-lime 50 pounds, and 
compact clay 135 pounds. 



90 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 




CHAMBER 

iafce x.15' 



CHAMBEH, 

vs'-s'xm' 



TT ,r -J 



second euiq& 



Design 17. 



Design 18 . 

Furnished by Payne &. 3pates, Kansas, III. 




Material Required for Design 18. 

2 000 brick for chimneys ; 680 yds. plastering : 210 lineal ft. 6x8 for sills ; 
112 ps. 2x4 16s, and 60 ps. 2x4 10s for studs ; 152 ps. 2x8 14s, 62 ps. 2xS 16s 
for floor joists; 76 ps. 2x4 14s, and 62 ps. 2x4 16s for ceiling joists; 400 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



91 



lineal ft. 1x3 for bridging and ribbons ; 30 ps. 2x6 20s, and 24 ps. 2x4 14s 
for rafters ; 94 lineal ft. 2x4 for plates ; 3,500 ft. sheathing for sides and 
roof; 15.000 shingles; l,8e0 ft. flooring; 2,400 ft. siding; 600 ft. select for 
trimmings; 5 ps. 4x4 10 ft. cased up for veranda posts; 5 posts. 6x6 3 ft. un- 
der veranda ; 29 posts, 8x8 5s under house ; 4 windows, 12-light, 10x16 ; 1 
double window, 16-light, 10x16; 6 windows, 8-light, 14x18; 1 double win- 
dow, S-light, 14x18 ; 3 windows, 12-light, 10x16 ; 13 doors, 2-6x6-10x1% ; 7 
doors, 2 6x7-6x1% ; double doors front (each) 2-2x7-6x1% ; transom over 
front door, 2-light, 12x24. 




Ground Faoor. 



Design 18. 



Building paper has made a wonderful improvement in the comfort of 
cheap wooden buildings. Not many years ago it was necessary to cover 
the frame of a house with matched stuff to insure warmth ; now any com- 
mon stuff, if it be covered with paper, will do. But paper should be used 
not only on the sides, but on either the roof or the ceiling joists. Paper, 
laid on strips midway of the depth of the studs, thus making two air 
spaces, will increase the warmth of a house twenty-five per cent. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



Design 19. 




Design 19. 

Material Required for Design 19. 

2,000 brick for chimneys ; 580 yds. plastering; 1,300 ft. flooring; 2,700 
ft. sheathing; 10,000 shingles; 2,000 ft. siding; 80 ps. 2x4 14s, and 50 ps. 



RURAL, ARCHITECTURE. 



93 



2x4 18s for studs ; 64 lineal ft. 2x4 for plates ; 136 lineal ft. 6x6 for sills; 96 
ps . 2x8 10s for floor j oists ; 48 ps . 2x4 10s for ceiling j oists ; 33 ps . 2x6 1 6s for 
rafters ; 200 lineal ft. 1x3 for bridging, etc. ; 300 ft. select for trimming: 
15 posts, 6x6 5 ft. ; 10 windows. 12-light, 12x16; 1 window, 8-light, 10x16; 
4 windows, 12-light, 12x14; 2 doors, 2-Sx6-Sxl% ; 11 doors, 2-6x6-8x1%. 

Design 19 can be put up for a very small sum, and yet offers conven- 
iences not found in many more expensive houses. A hall we consider 
very desirable, but if any one should wish to economize room, it could be 
done by leaving only an entry-way at the front and enlarging the kitchen. 
This plan is a modification of one given in Appleton's Cyclopaedia of 
Drawing as a typical one, embracing all the advantages possible in so 
small a space and for so small an expenditure. 



Design 20. 

Furnished by W. J. Fleming, Whiting, Kan. 




Material Required for Design 20. 

2,200 brick for chimneys; 380 yds. plaster; 850 ft. flooring; 3.950 ft. 
sheathing ; 2,900 ft. siding ; 15,000 shingles ; 168 lineal ft. 6x6 for sills ; 82 
lineal ft, 2x4 for plates ; 138 ps. 2x4 14s, and 88 ps. 2x4 10s for studs; 24 
ps. 2x8 14s, and 24 ps. 2x8 16s for floor joists ; 24 ps. 2x4 14s, and 24 ps. 
2x4 16s for ceiling joists ; 30 ps. 2x6 14s, and 26 ps. 2x6 12s for rafters ; 56 ps. 
1x6 10s ties to rafters; 200 lineal ft. 1x3 for bridging, etc.; 300 ft. select 
for trimming ; 2 posts, 4x4 3 ft. ; 2 posts, 4x4 9 ft. ; 22 posts, 6x6 5 f t. ; 6 
windows, 12-light, 12x18 ; 8 windows, 8-light, 12x16 ; 1 window, 4-light, 
12x16; 8 windows, 8dight, 10x14; 3 doors, 2-8x6-10x1%; 7 doors, 2-6x6- 
10x1%. 

This Is a remarkably neat and compact plan for a 1-story house. A very 
fine effect is produced in its appearance by making the roofs full pitch 



m 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



and heavily ornamenting the gables ; but all superfluous ornament has 
been thrown out, as the object of this work is to produce cheap plans, as 
far as is consistent with good taste and the comfort of the future occu- 
pant. 




Design 20. 



Design 21. 




RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



95 



Material Required for Design 21. 

785 brick for cb.im.ne5- ; 288 yds. plastering or paper ; 750 ft. flooring 
(surface) ; 2.346 ft. sheathing (surface) ; 6.750 shingles ; 1,740 ft. %-in. sid- 
ing ; 100 ps.' 2x4 14s, 37 ps. 2x4 10s, and 52 ps. 2x4 12s for studding ; 9 ps. 
2x8 16s, 9 ps. 2x6 12s, 9 ps. 2x6 16s, and 9 ps. 2x8 12s for joists, and 8 ps. 
2x4 16s for collar joists ; 6 2xS 14s, and 2 2x8 18s for sills ; 3 2x12 16s for 
joists ; 606 ft. in. finishing lumber, and 75 ft. l^-in. finishing lumber; 7 
windows, 8-lights, 10x16; 7 doors, panel 2-8x6-8x1%; 4,000 lath. 




Ground Floor, 



Second Floor. 



Design 21. 



The plan of this house was suggested by Mr. Geo. "W. "Ware, of Jersey- 
ville, m., and is designed to reduce the expense to the minimum. It is 
18x28 ft. outside, has 14 ft. studding, roof one-half pitch, and the stories 
are 9 ft. and 8 ft. in the clear, respectively. 



Building contracts, as all other business arrangements, should be writ- 
ten. A few moments' time spent in stating, clearly and concisely, what 
is expected of each party will often save delays and annoyances during 
the progress of the work and endless litigation after it. The mechanic's 
lien laws are a sufficient protection to the contractor or material man, but 
their enforcement is much more simple and prompt if action can be based 
on a written contract. 



96 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



Design 22. 

Furnished by R. M. Pinkerton, Viola, III. 




Ground Floor — Design 22. 
Material Required for Design 22. 

3,000 brick for chimneys; 750 yds. plastering; 136 lineal ft. 6x8 sills; 68 
ps. 2x8 16s, 26 ps. 2xS 14s, and 4.0 ps. 2x6 20s for joists ; 175 ps. 2x4 18s for 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



97 



studs and partitions ; 10 ps. 4x4 18s for corner posts; 60 ps. 2x4 12s, 30 
ps. 2x4 14s, and 70 ps. 2x4 16s for rafters, etc. ; 2,500 ft. flooring ; 2,500 ft. 
common dressed boards for lining ; 1,500 ft. No. 2 boards sheathing roof; 
14.000 shingles; 2.600 ft. siding; 400 ft. wainscoting; 2,500 ft. 1-in. finish- 
ing lumber, dressed; 500 ft. \% -in. finishing lumber, dressed; 6 ps. 2x8 
16s dressed; 20 ps. 2x6 18s dressed; 11,000 lath; 250 ft. 2-in. plank for 
steps and platform ; 200 ft. 2^-in. bead moulding; 16 brackets, 3% in. 
face; 8 cords stone for foundation in cellar; 8 bbls. lime for cellar ; 240 
ft. cut. stone for top of wall; 2,000 brick and 2 bbls. cement for cistern 
under bath-room ; 13 doors. 2-8x7 1%. 3 of them glazed ; 7 doors, 2 6x6-0 
1%; 13 windows, 4-light, 12x32; 12 windows, 4 light, 12x28; 2 windows, 
2-light, 12x16. 




Second Story— Design 22. 
The cut does not do justice to the appearance of this house. It is 
finely proportioned, and thoroughly convenient and complete. Its cost 
would be from $1,400 to $1,800, according to the location and the ma- 
terial used. Its owner laid hardwood floors on the lower floor of the back 
wing, and used moulding of two members on two rooms and the hall. 



Chimneys, in these specifications, are estimated from the foundation 
up, and wherever it is consistent with the required cost of the building 
they should be so made. But there is no particular value to be gained if 
they are used merely to receive pipes from stoves or furnaces. They 
should be constructed with several flues. A two-story house should have 
three; the central one a smoke flue, and the others tor ventilation. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



Design 23. 




Material Required for Design 23. 

200 ps. 2x4 20s for studding; 18 ps. 8x8 20s. for sills ; 45 posts 8x8 6 ft. ; 
5 trusses 8x8, 35 ft. for span; 192 ps. 2x6 10s for rafters ; 2,400 ft. rough 
sheathing for side ; 2,000 ft. rough sheathing for roof ; 3.000 ft. planed sid- 
ing; 2,600 ft. planed flooring; 2,900 shingles; 200 ft. water table; 47 ps. 
joist, 2x10 18s ; 250 ft. moulding for outside ; 60 ft. of cresting ; 150 ft. cor- 
ner boards ; 650 yds. of lath and plaster ; 8 double windows, complete ; 2 
sets double doors and 2 single complete ; 300 ft. of 10-in.base ; pews extra ; 
2,000 brick for chimneys. 




Design 23. 



Almost every country church is disfigured by stoves and stove-pipes in 
the audience room, and the reason is that the congregation is unable to 
afford the expense of purchasing and keeping a furnace. Small churches 
can be heated more economically than by the ordinary method, as follows?. 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



99 



Procure a common, large box stove of a size to burn cordwood without 
sawing, and fitted with a good drum. Place it in the basement, and in- 
close it in a brick chamber, connected by a cold air shaft with the outside, 
and by a flue and register with the room above. Let the front of the stove 
appear on the outside of the chamber, and let the flues and pipe be large. 
This improvised furnace will heat the house more uniformly than stoves 
above, and will avoid the inconvenience occasioned by them, and the ex- 
pense of preparing the wood. 



Design 24. 




Material Required for Design 24. 

5 trusses; in each, 1 ps. 10x10 40, 1 ps. 10x10 20, 2 ps. 10x10 14s, 2 ps. 
6x10 13s, 2 rods 1J£ in. o iron 11 ft. long, 2 bolts 1 in. o iron 2.3 ft. long, 
with heads, nuts, washers, and 3 in. of thread ; 16 ps. 6x8 14s for purlins; 
56 ps. 2x6 32s (made by spiking 16s together), 12 ps. 2x4 10s (over door- 
way), for rafters ; 58 lineal ft. 2x6 for ridge pole ; 14 ps. 10x10 16s for posts ; 
10 ps. 8x8 12s for braces on bents, 28 ps. 6x8 8s for braces on sides ; 16 ps. 
4xd 14s, 12 ps. 4x6 13s for stringers ; 100 ps. 2x10 14s joists for upper floor, 
168 ps. 2x12 14s joists for main floor ; 310 lineal ft. 10x10 for sills ; 456 ps. 
1x6 16s. 48 ps. 1x6 20s for siding (if this siding is matched, add 15 and 
leave out the battens) ; 456 ps. 1x3 16s, 48 1x3 20s for battens ; 3.750 sq.ft. 
38,000 A No. 1 sawed shingles; 400 superficial ft. 4x4 oak for stall floors ; 
2,200 superficial ft. 2-in. plank for main floor; 2,200 superficial ft. 1%-in. 
flooring for upper floor ; 500 superficial ft. 2-in. plank for stall partitions ; 
900 lineal ft 3x3 in. for bridging ; 750 sq. ft. 1x6 in. for ceiling for stables ; 
450 sq. ft. 1x6 in. for ventilator shaft ; add about 100 ft. 1x6 for waste, etc. 
4 large doors, 6x10 to slide on sheaves ; frame of doors, 3x3 in. stuff mor- 
tised, covered with 1x3 in. matched stuff: small door cut in two of them 
on hinges ; doors outside to stables, 3-6x6 ft. made same way but lighter; 
2 light batten doors inside, 2-10x6-10 ; 2 windows, 6-light, 12x14 ; one flight 
stairs, 3 strings, 26 steps. 



100 



KUKAL ARCHITECTUBE. 




Design 24. 
Material Required fop Shed. 

5 ps. 8x8 12s, 4 ps 6x8 8s, 1 ps. 8x8 16s for posts ; 120 lineal ft. 6x8 for 
plates and strings ; 70 lineal ft. 8x8 for sills; 20 ps. 2x6 24s, 20 ps. 2x6 16s 
for rafters ; 40 lineal ft. 4x6 in. under rafters ; 16 ps. 4x4 16s for braces ; 
900 sq. ft. edged siding, 450 sq.ft. 1x3 in. battens (add 1-5 if matched); 
1,600 sq. ft. of roofing; 16.000 shingles; 570 superficial ft. 2-in. stuff for 
stall partitions ; 480 superficial ft. 2-in. stuff for floors ; 29 cord stone ma- 
sonry under barn and shed. 

This plan is taken from " Barn Plans and Outbuildings," published by 
the Orange Judd Company and is a complete and convenient design. The 
accompanying bill of material includes all that is necessary to put it up in 
the best and most scientific manner, but can be cheapened in some par- 
ticulars as required. The size of the main part is 40x55 feet. The center 
through, from side to side, is occupied by the 15-ft. barn floor. The 20-ft. 
space on the right is occupied by the haymow, with a root cellar under it. 
On the left are the stables. The horse stalls occupy a space of 15x20 feet 
(instead of 25 as given in the plan), and the cattle stalls, l£x25, leaving a 
space in front of them, to the line of the floor, of seven feet, which affords 
room for hay cutter, feed boxes, etc. There is a tight ceiling of matched 
boards over the stable, at a height of eight feet. On the straining beams 
of the roof is laid a substantial tight floor, which is the granary floor. It 
may extend the whole length of the barn, or only over the stables and 
threshing-floor. The small gable in the roof should have a strong beam 
with tackle projecting from over the door, and grain can be hoisted by 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



101 



horse power from the outside. There is also a trap-door over the thresh- 
ing-floor for the same purpose. Corn can be spread on this floor, and 
will cure much more quickly than if stored in cribs, and, as well as grain, 
will be out of the reach of rats and other vermin. The ventilating shaft 
connects this floor with the stables, and it is reached by a stairway from 
the floor over the stables. On the lower floor a passage way, behind the 
cattle stalls, connects with the stalls and loose boxes in the shed. Animals 
will not suffer if the front of the shed is open, but if so desired it can be 
closed by boarding and large doors. 

The material for the pig-pen is not included in the schedule. The boiler 
room is placed at this distance from the barn to insure against fire, but 
the barn-yard and pens can be arranged as best suits the builder. 



Design 25. 




Material Required for Design 25. 

2 ps. 6x8 28s, and 3 ps. 6x8 20s for sills; 2 ps. 6x6 28s, and 3 ps. 6x6 20s 
for plates; 6 ps. 6x6 16s for posts; 2 ps. 4x6 Ws. and 2 ps. 4x6 20s for 
girths; 56 ps. 2x8 14s for joists: 14 ps. 2x4 10s for partition; 20 ps. 2x6 
14s for rafters: 1,625 ft. dressed dimension boards for siding; 14Jft. 
matched flooring for doors: 70r ft. common boards for roofing: 8.000 
shingles; 1.120 ft. 2-in. 2x1 2s: 650 ft. matched dimension boards for floor 
of loft; 180 ft. matched dimension boards for partition: 400 ft. 3-in. O. G. 
battens; 4 ps. 4x4 16s for braces; 200 ft. 2x12 for mangers; 240 ft. com- 
mon boards for stalls; 6 ps. 2x6 10s for stalls. 



102 



RURAL ARCHITECTED. 




Design 26. 

Furnished by F. Huggins, Carthage, Mo. 




Material Required for Design 26. 
200 lineal ft. 8x10 for main sills; 150 lineal ft. 8x8 for cross sills; 150 
lineal ft. 6x6 for cross girths; 16 ps. 8x8 16s for posts; 200 lineal ft. 6x8s 
for plates; 200 lineal ft. 6x8s for girths; 52 ps. 2x4 10s for studs for bins, 
stables, etc.; 20 ps. 2x^ 12s for studs between carriage room and mow; 
20 ps. 2x6 12s for studs between carriage room and corn crib: 20 ps. 2x6 
16s for studs for end of corn crib; 24 ps. 2x8 16s for floor joists for car- 
riage room and corn crib; 24 ps. 2x8 12s for floor joists for drive-way; 24 
ps. 2x8 8s (16s) for floor joists for bins ; 24 ps. 2x8 20s for floor joists for 
stable; 2 ps. 4x4 16s for stringer under stable; 2,800 ft. 2x8 joists under 
floor of loft, which is over stable, bins, carriage room and corn crib; 72 
ps. 2x6 22s (or 20s) for rafters; 36 ps. 2x4 12s for collar beams; 3,200 ft, 
dressed dimension boards for siding; 8(10 ft. 3-in. O. G. battens; 540 ft. 
flooring for doors ; 2.50C ft. common boards for roofing; 30.000 shingles ; 
3,000 ft. 2-in. plank; 1,150 ft. matched dimension boards for floor of loft; 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



103 



600 ft. matched dimension boards for bins ; £50 ft. l}£-in. plank for man- 
gers, etc.; 360 ft. common boards for partition between carriage room 
and hay mow; 270 ft. 3-in. battens between carriage room and crib: 2 ps. 
2x4 16s for ladder posts in front of mow; 136 lineal ft. 4x4s for braces; 
135 ft. dressed dimension boards for ventilator shaft; 2 windows, 8-light, 
8x12; 2 cellar sash, 3-light, 10x12, over small doors (not indicated in cuts. 




104 



RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 



This plan is of a barn, complete and convenient in its arrangements, 
but the size of which can be varied to suit the requirements of the farmer 
building it. The roof is built one-half pitch, thus obtaining a large 
amount of room in the loft, and the collar beams are put only five feet 
below the ridge for the same purpose, and to insure strength the rafters 
are made of 2x6 stuff, and should be well bridged. The five cros3 siUs are 
under the five main divisions of the barn, and the long joists under the 
stable, reaching from the bins to the end of the barn, are to be supported 
by a 4x1, resting on posts. The ventilating shaft should be three feet 
square, made cf dimension boards with the dressed sides turned inward, 
and with openings at different heights for conducting hay or straw to the 
stable. This barn can be shortened by omitting either the corn crib, car- 
riage room or hay-mow; if all are left out the drive-way could be used as 
a mow, and filled from the outside, thus making a fine 30x40 feet barn. 
The siding on the crib end should be laid horizontally, and each board 
given a slant from the top edge down and outward, thus protecting the 
corn from rain, and giving an aperture an inch wide for ventilation. 



Design 27. 

Country School House. 




Material Required for Design 27. 

164 lineal ft. 6x8 sills; 4 ps. 6x6 16s for corner posts: 56 ps. 2x10 14s for 
joists; H2ps. 2x6 16s for studs; 28 ps. 2x6 28s for ceiling joists ; 56 ps. 
2x6 ISs for rafters; 7,3 lineal ft. 2x4s for plates; ISO lineal ft. 1x3 for bridg- 
ing, etc.; 3.292 ft. sheathing; 2.500 ft. siding; 13,000 shingles; 1,125ft. 
flooring; 800 ft. select; 128 ft. moulding; 6 windows, 12-light, 12x22; 2 



BUBAL ABCBlTECTtTBE. 



105 



windows, 8-light, 10x22 for double window; 2 doors, 3x8. 1% in. ; 4 doors, 
2-8x7-6, 1% in. ; 750 brick for chimney; 2.('50 yds plastering. Outside di- 
mensions, 28x36 ft. ; roof. % pitch; vestibules, 6x7 ; cloak rooms, 6x6. 




Design 27. 



106 HINTS TO BUILDERS. 



Hints to Builders. 



STRENGTH OF BUILDINGS.— THE "NEBRASKA" SILL. 

With the increasing prevalence of tornadoes in the West it becomes the 
duty of carpenters and builders to construct buildings with reference to 
such unusual strains, and especially should this be done when it involves 
no additional expense. 

The " Nebraska sill " thoroughly ballasts the frame, where a stone foun- 
dation is used ; but if the building is set on posts they should be securely 
anchored at a depth of from 4 to 6 feet, and the sills bolted or spiked on. 
Sheathing put on diagonally acts as a brace over the whole surface, and 
requires no more lumber than if put on horizontally. It is well to run 
the sheathing from each side up parallel with the rafters, if at the gable 
ends, and at a similar angle at the sides. Roofing boards can be put on 
in the same manner. Studs can be allowed to project above the plates 
and the rafters spiked to the sides of studs. Partitions should be braced 
with waste stuff, and in such ways a building can be so strengthened that 
it can be rolled over and over without coming to pieces, and the extra cost 
will simply consist in a few hours extra labor. 

Many carpenters do not stop to consider how the most strength can be 
obtained with given materials, but do everything in the manner that first 
occurs to them, or that will save a little labor. Thus a carpenter ordered 
2x8 18s for the floor joists in a 12x18 room. When asked why he did not 
place them across the room, he replied that every carpenter would order 
18s, as it would save framing. A little knowledge of the strength of ma- 
terials would have told him that a floor laid as he proposed would sup- 
port less than one-half the weight that the 12 feet joists would sustain, 
and the amount of material would be the same. In many cases, also, the 
desire to build as cheaply as possible leads the carpenter to use material 
of smaller dimensions than are necessary to give the required strength, 
and so roofs are often inadequate to support more than their own weight, 
and ceilings sink, cracking and disfiguring the walls. 

That all carpenters are so careless and regardless of true principles of 
construction, is not true, but there are too many, as is shown by the im- 
mense number of poorly constructed houses whose floors are sunken and 
walls twisted. A cheap house need not be a weak one. 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. 



107 



In some parts of the "West and especially in Nebraska a framed sill is in 
use, which combines qualities that will make it of service to builders in 
many localities. The accompanying cut explains the man- 
ner of construction. A piece of 2x6 or 2x8 is laid upon the 
wall, and flush Avith one side of this a 2-inch piece of the 
same width as the joists is placed on edge and securely 
spiked on, thus making the bottom and one side of a 
trough. These can be fastened before being put in place. 
The joists are placed with their ends upon the bed of the 
sill and against the side, and spiked to both. The studs 
are halved down, in this case 8 inches, and nailed to side of 
sill and joists. The sides of the sill, running parallel with 
the joists, are formed by two of the joists themselves, 
either set flush with the face of the wall and the studs let 
down back, or, set back two inches and the studs let 
down in front. 




When the frame is finished, and before the floor is laid the wall is built 
up behind and over the sill; thus holding all in place, guarding against 
wind, as the wall must be torn up before the building will go ; and also, 
incidentally, against rats and otber vermin. It will be found fully as 
strong and much cheaper than timber. 

If posts are used for the foundation a modification of this arrangement 
will prove equally serviceable. The following diagram illustrates the 



108 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. 



difference more plainly than words can. The principle on 
which it depends is explained at length further on. It is 
well known that a thin piece of timber put on edge, as in 
joists, etc.. will support a much greater weight than if laid 
on its side. The strength of a piece is in direct propor- 
tion to the square of its depth and nearly inversely as its 
length. Thus it will be found that simply the 2x12. 8 feet 
long, without considering the support afforded to it by the 
walls, would have a strength equal to 4 2x4s 16 feet long. It 
might be objected that the joists 
would not rest on the 2x12 but on 
the 2x6. This is partly true, but 
the joists are spiked to the 2x12, 
and are nailed to the studs, which 
rest on the sill, thus binding the 
whole together. Particular care 
must be taken to spike the 2x12 
side of the sill to the 2x4 or 2x6 
base at short intervals. All the parts must be 
well nailed together, and especially the studs to 
the joists, and the sills to the posts. This form 
will h ave abundant strength and stiffness if the 
posts are not over 8 feet apart. A sill constructed 
in this way, of these dimensions, contains the 
same number of feet as a 6x6 sill, but will sustain 
a weight a third greater than the latter, if the 
weights are placed at the centers, but as the studs 
are fastened together by the sheathing, the weight 
will be partly transferred from the sills to the 
posts. It can also be made of any lengths that 
will reach from post to post, and the cost can thus be made less. 




STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



Materials are subjected in machinery and buildings to one or more of 
four different strains affecting their .durability, viz. : 

1st. — Tension, or a force which tends to pull apart the fibres or particles 
of a substance, such a force is exerted in tie beams, suspension rods, 
ropes, etc. 

2d.— Compression, or a force tending to crush the substance, as in 
columns, braces, arches, etc. 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. 109 



3d.— Transverse or lateral strains, tending to break apart the fibers, as 
in joists, girders, etc. 
4tb. — Torsion, or twisting, as in shafts, screws, etc. 

TENSION. 
That property of materials which enables them to resist tension is 
called their cohesive force. The following table gives the force necessary 
to pull apart a rod of one square inch section of the various materials 
given. These results have been obtained from numerous experiments. 
METALS. 
POUNDS.I POUNDS. 

Brass 35,6U0 Lead, cast 880 

Copper, cast 22,510 Lead, milled 3.320 

Copper, wire 30,t»00 Plat num wire 53.0(10 

Iron, cast 20.0i'0 Silver, cast 41.000 

Iron. cast. English 52,000 Silver, wire 38.250 

Iron, wrought. . . .' 60.000 Steel, soft 120.000 

Iron, wrought, Swedish 72.000 Steel, fine 135.000 

Iron, wrought, English 56.000 Steel, razor, tempered 150.000 

T ' -J 85.700 Tin, cast block 50.000 

Iron, wire -j 11 3.000 Zinc, cast 2.600 

Iron, medium bar 60.000 Zinc, sheet 16,000 

Iron, inferior bar 30,000 

WOODS. 

POUNDS.' POUNDS. 

Ash, white, seasoned.... 14. 000 Mahogany 21,800 

Ash. red, seasoned 17. 800 Mahogany, Spanish 12.000 

Birch 15.000 Maple 1 JjOO 

Beech 11.000 Oak, white 15.000 

Cedar 11.000 Oak. English lOA'OO 

Chestnut, sweet 10,000 Oak, seasoned 13.500 

Cvpress 6,000 Pine, white 10.000 

Elm 13,000 Pine, pitch 12.000 

Elm, rock 16.0»»0 Pine. Norway 13.000 

Fir. American 8 500 Poplar 7.000 

Lance wood 24 COO Svcamore 13,000 

Lisjnum Vitse 12,000 Walnut 17.000 

Locust 20.000 Willow 13,000 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

POUNDS.! POUNDS. 

Brick. 29()Marble 0.000 

Glass, plate 9,400 Morter. 20 years old 52 

Hemp, fibres glued together. .92.000 Slate. . '. 12,000 

Hemp, rope 19,600 Stone, fine grain 200 

Ivory 16,000jWhalebone 7,600 

In practice one fourth of the above weights is taken as the strength of 
the material. 



COMPRESSION. 
The following table gives the number of pounds resistance a square inch 



110 HINTS TO BUILDERS. 



of the given materials will oppose to«compression without permanent al- 
teration. 

POUNDS. | POUNDS. 

Ash . 3,540 Lead, cast 1.500 

Beech 2.360 Mahogany 3,800 

Brass 6J00Oak, English 3,950 

Brick 56( Pine, American yellow 3.900 

Cast iron 15,300 Steel 45,00C 

Elm 3.240 Stone, Portland 3.700 

Granite, Aberdeen 1 0,900 Tin. cast 2,880 

Gun metal, cast lO.OOO.Whalebone 5,600 

Iron, malleable 17,800|zinc, cast 5,700 

As in tension, material should never be loaded with more than one- 
fourth of its utmost strength. 



TRANSVERSE STRAINS. 

Many experiments have been made to determine the breaking strain of 
different building materials. The average results are given in the follow- 
ing table, the pieces used in the experiment being uniform rods one foot 
long, and with ends one inch square, supported horizontally by standards 
at each end, and the weight applied perpendicularly at the center. 

POUNDS.! POUNDS. 

Ash 635Tron, cast (extreme weight, with- 

Beech 677 out making permanent change) .850 

Birch 517 Oak 660 

Chestnut 450 Poplar, Lombard 327 

Elm 540 Spruce, American 570 

Hard pine, American 658, Walnut, green 487 

As this table expresses the breaking weight of each piece it would not 
be safe to permanently load them with more than one-fourth the weight 
given in the table. 

Experiments have shown, and mathematical calculations demonstrated, 
that the strength of beams and girders varies, inversely as their length, 
and directly as their width, and the squares of their depths. Thus, a 
beam 8 feet long will be only one-half as strong as one of the same breadth 
and depth, and 4 feet long; and the latter will be 4 times as strong as one 
of the same breadth and depth, and 16 feet long. Two beams of the same 
length and depth will sustain a weight just in proportion to their width; 
by doubling the width the strength is do\ibled. If two pieces have the 
same length and breadth their strength will be as the square of their 
depths. If one has twice the depth of the other, it will sustain a weight 
four times as great. A 2x12 8 will bear four times the weight that a 2x6 8 
will, the 2x6 8 will bear one-third the weight that a 6x6 8 will sustain. 
Therefore, a 2x12 placed on edge will bear a weight placed on its center 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. Ill 

one-third greater than can be borne by a 6x6 of the same length. The 
above is not strictly true in regard to lengths, as the strength appears to 
diminish in a ratio greater than the inverse proportion of the length ; 
caused, probably, by the tendency to bulge and twist in long pieces of 
timber. This error is provided for in the following rule :— To find from the 
foregoing table the breaking weight of any piece of timber, the length, 
breadth and thickness being given: Divide the breaking weight given in 
the table by the length in feet ; subtract 10 from the quotient ; multiply 
the remainder by the breadth in inches and that product by the square of 
the depth in inches 

Example : — Required the breaking weight of a hard pine scantling 2in. 
X12in.X10 feet supported at ends.— 658-f-10=65, 65— 10=55, 55X2X144= 
15.840=breaking weight, 15,S40X4=3,960=greatest weight it should be re- 
quired to support permanently. 

Example : — Required the breaking weight of a hard pine sill 6in. X6in. 
XlOfeet, supported at the ends ; 658-5-10=65, 65—10=55, 55X6X36=10,880 
=breaking weight, 10,8S0-5-4=2,720=greatest weight the sill should be 
required to bear. 

The following dimensions, taken from the Liverpool Building Act, may 
be considered as standard sizes of joists for ordinary buildings. The dis- 
tances between centers being one foot, joists in floors, clear bearing. 

Exceeding 7 and not exceeding 10 ft. should be not less than 6x2 in. 

10 " " 12 " - " 6x21/6 " 

12 " " 14% " " " 7x2%" 
14% " " 16 - " " 8x2% " 
16 " " 18 " " " 9x23^" 

13 " " 20 " " " 10x234" 
20 " " 22 " " " 11x3 " 
22 " " 24 " " " 12x3 " 

As timber does not come in fractions of inches, whena greater width or 
depth is used than that indicated the distance between centers can be in- 
creased proportionally. 

Torsion is very seldom to be considered in calculating the strains to 
which building material is subjected, and its discussion will, therefore, 
be omitted from this book. Its province is in machinery, and its effect 
on shafts, etc., must be considered, and made the subject of special study, 
by the mechanical engineer. 



ROOF ELEVATIONS. 
By the " pitch " of a roof is meant the relation which the height of the 
ridge above the level of the roof-plates bears to the span, or the distance 
between the studs on which the roof rests. Thus, in the following dia- 
gram, with a span of 24 feet, and with a roof made one-fourth pitch, the 
ridge is 6 feet above the plates, with one-third pitch, 8 feet above, etc. 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. 







Span 24 feet 



The length of rafters tor tlie most common pitches can be found as fol- 
lows from any given span : 

If % Pitch multiply Span by /59, or 7-11 nearly. 
" Y 3 " " " .6+. " 3-5 " 

■ % " " " .625, " % 

" 3a " " " .71+, " 7-10 " 

« % a « «. #g+> « 4.5 ,. 

" Full " " " 1.12, " iy s " 

To lengths thus obtained must be added amount of projection of raft- 
ers at the eaves. 

As rafters must be purchased of even lengths, a few inches more or less 
on their leugths will make a difference tn the pitch so slight that it cannot 
be detected bv the eye. 

Example :— To determine the length of rafters for a roof constructed 
one-half pitch, with a span of 24 feet— 24X .71=17.04 ; or, practically, just 
17 feet as in cut. A projection of 1 foot for eaves makes the length to be 
purchased 18 feet. 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. 113 



HEATING AND VENTILATION. 

There is no one subject of more vital importance to the public and par- 
ticularly to those people who own homes, than that embraced in the 
above caption. In connection with the foregoing designs , and hints to 
builders, a brief chapter under this head is not out of place, and may be 
of no little value to the reader. By the term " builder " as used herein is 
meant more than is ordinarily included in the mechanical designation, 
"carpenter and builder" — i. e. one whose avocation it is to design and 
construct buildings. We mean all those who build for themselves homes 
in which their days are to be spent, and in the construction of which 
certainly no pains should be spared to secure pleasure, comfort and 
health. Toward the last and most important of these the following re- 
marks are directed. 

As in almost everything we do, there is a right way and a wrong way 
to build a house, which assertion is forcibly illustrated in the two dia- 
grams which follow. If rooms be constructed the same as boxes, closed 
tightly at top and bottom with only the ordinary doors and windows for 
openings, they must necessarily be unhealthy, as no circulation of the 
air can take place. The two greatest and most indispensible agents to 
health furnished by nature are fresh air and sunshine. To exclude either 
or both is to invite disease and death. Unless some means are provided 
for the ingress and egress of pure air, by which that in a room is con- 
stantly changing, it becomes at once impure, and the more persons there 
are in the room the worse this condition will be. The cold, dead and im- 
pure air falls to the floor, and is a constant menace to the health and 
lives of children whose time is principally spent there. This is probably 
the least understood of all the evils that beset the path of infancy and 
early childhood. Not only does the little one live in the coldest air of the 
room, but the foulest. Anyone knows that carbonic acid gas is a deadly 
poison, and anyone also ought to know that it is constantly thrown off 
from the human lungs in the process of breathing. Being heavier than 
air it falls to the floor and there remains and accumulates until some 
means of displacing it by pure air are used. Some one has very truly said, 
"our breath is our greatest enemy." The stifling atmosphere of any un- 
ventilated room in which a crowd of persons are gathered amply proves 
this assertion, and accounts for the many instances where ladies or any- 
one physically weak are known to be carried out of such crowds in a 
fainting condition. To attain the highest perfection in ventilation the 
air nearest the floors of a room should be warmest, growing gradually 
cooler nearer the ceiling. This keeps the feet warm and the head cool. 
Under the old-fashioned way of building houses with wide, open fire- 
places, this condition was partially secured by reason of the draft from 



114 HINTS TO BUILDERS. 



the chimney which necessarily exhausted more or less air from the bot- 
tom of the room. With the modern method, however, of building al- 
most an air-tight house, and heating it by stoves, the question of properly 
supplying the rooms with fresh air becomes of vital importance. 

The best time to consider all these questions is upon building a new 
house. Then, the expense of complying with these reasonable laws of 
nature and health is little or nothing, while to change over an air-tight 
box into a healthy and comfortable habitation would require quite an 
outlay. In the diagrams which follow Fig. 1 represents the common 
form of balloon-frame house, in which, as usually constructed, the air is 
not only bad, but the heat is wrongly applied, as the following explana- 
tion will show : 

The usual sill is simply a 2x8 plank upon which rest the studding of 
the outer walls and also the first story joists which are spiked to the 
studding. Then come the second story and attic joists, both nailed to 
the studding. A glance at the diagram shows that the floor, laid up to 
the inside of the studding, is joined at that point with the plastering up- 
on the walls which continues up to and over the ceiling and down to the 
floor again on the other side. Upon the outside of the studding, of 
course, come the sheathing and siding, leaving an open space all around 
each room between this and the plastering. Each room is a box, the 
bottom of which is one-inch flooring, while the sides and top are one- 
half or three-quarter inch plastering. Tens of thousands of houses are 
standing to-day all over this country built in this way, in which a rat or 
mouse may start from below the first floor and make the whole circuit, 
going up one side between the studding to the attic, over and down the 
other side without interruption. 

The moment a higher temperature is created in any room the walls of 
plaster begin to radiate heat into the spaces mentioned, and the air within 
becomes rarified and at once moves to the right or left and crawls up the 
walls to the attic. To take its place the cold air in the upper part falls 
down under the floors. If the temperature in the attic be zero, the air 
underneath each floor, also cooled by the frost that penetrates the siding, 
must be very nearly the same. Thus it appears that had it been the de- 
sign of the builder to make the floors cold, he could not have hit upon a 
device, more certain to produce that result. 

The arrows in the diagram Fig. 1 indicate the way the air will circulate 
through it, may be from right to left or the reverse, as influenced by ex- 
ternal currents. Heat this house as you may by furnace, steam coil or 
common stove, the upper part of each room must be hot while the floor 
will be cold. Any person who has not actually tested it with the mercury 
will be astonished at the results of a trial. Cut a hole in the floor of 
either story and drop a thermometer into it any winter day, and then 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. 



115 



try it six or eight feet above the floor. The test has frequently been made 
in all kinds of houses. Sometimes when the thermometer marked 75° 
Fah. six feet above the floor it would go to 45° or 40 c below the floor. 
This is all wrong and unquestionably kills more children than any other 
known cause. 




Figure 1, 



116 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. 



The following drawing Figure. 2 is designed to illustrate how a dwell- 
ing house may be built so as not only to insure a full supply of fresh air, 
but so that the floors in cold weather shall always be the warmest part of 
the room. On examination of the cut it will be seen that under the main 
and second floors there are three sets of timbers, in place of one as usual; 
the regular joist, and above and below it small joists or strips, that are 
crosswise of the large ones, the floor resting on the upper strips, and the 




Figvku 2, 



HINTS TO BUTLDEKS. 117 

plastering on the lower ones. By this device we have an opening between 
the floor and the regular joist above, and below the joist an opening be- 
tween it and the plastering. This provides for the circulation of air be- 
tween, over and under the joist, so that it may flow freely in any direction. 

The right side of the building is represented as being cut down between 
two pieces of studding so as to show the inside of the clapboards or 
sheathing, and the space between the ceiling and each floor just above. 
Observe that at this point it is shown as boxed between the joist and 
studding, and filled in solid with cheap mortar or cement, so as to com- 
pletely cut off all flow of air from under the floor out to the siding, or 
vice verm, and from one story to another. The left hand of the drawing 
shows a brick wall, with the usual space between it and the plastering, 
although these remarks apply as well to frame as to brick buildings. This 
appears also cut off by a projection or offset in the wall of four inches or 
more, which is nicely plastered between the joist and strips, and must 
extend clear around the house, •>'. e., on the inside of the outer wall. The 
floor is then laid to lap over this on the top. and the plastering to lap 
under it on the bottom. This may be called a low room, say 12, 14 or 16 
inches high that is tight all around. 

It will at once be understood that if warm air were let into it, but very 
little fuel would be required to heat it to the temperature of an ordinary 
room that may be as many feet high as this is inches. 

Underneath the hall, in the cellar, the reader will note a square box 
marked A; this represents the heater (which may be in any form) and is 
supposed to be supplied with fresh air in the usual way. B\it in place of 
tin pipes leading out to each room, the warm air is discharged into this 
room, or hall, and must at once take its place at the ceiling. The joist 
and timbers above this being shown as broken away, the openings C and D 
in the ceiling of this room are visible. The warm air must then flow 
through these up under the floor, and then spread out in all directions, 
the warmest hugging the floor, displacing the coldest, which must fall 
below the joist. If there were no openings or registers in the floor, and 
the partition wall on the right of the heater was left open as shown, and 
an open base was used inside the furnace room, it will be seen that the 
coldest air under the floor must then fall down this partition and into the 
heating room, as indicated by the arrows. This whole space, i. e.. the 
furnace room and space under the floor, becomes practically an enlarged 
section of the fresh air duct, and the air in it is thus shown to circulate 
from the heater up under the floor and back, exactly as it does around 
any heater in a room heated by direct radiation. In this way the entire 
floor and floor timbers may be heated to any degree desired, even if the 
windows or doors of the room above were open. 

Registers, as shown at E, are placed in the floor, at any point most 



118 HINTS TO BUILDERS. 



convenient, and when the air above, or in the room proper, is to be 
heated, the register is opened and the air flows in exactly as if discharged 
from the ordinary furnace pipe, with this difference, it is never hot, only 
warm, say 75, 80 or 90°, the same as the actual temperature of the tim- 
bers. From the rooms no air ever returns to the heaters, but it is ex- 
hausted above the floor, as indicated at the exhaust chimney, F on the 
bottom — exhaust plan. A second or third floor may be heated in ex- 
actly the same way by allowing the warm air to pass up any partition 
wall, as indicated in the plan by the open partition on the main floor. 
Dampers are provided in these partitions so that the flow of air can be 
shut off or turned on at pleasure. 

Of course any arrangement of rooms may be used and any style of 
architecture, this plan being alike adapted to all. 

Those interested will notice the philosophical difference of the effect of 
heat or cold as applied to a structure on this plan and one built as in 
Fig. 1. 

In that, the heat first Avarms the ceilings and walls, radiates into the 
spaces above and behind the plastering, and the cold air absorbs it, and 
at once a current of air is caused to move around and around the 
rooms, carrying off a majority of the heat generated by the fuel and ever 
leaving the coldest air at the floor. In Fig. 2, the floors must be first 
warmed and the ceilings, being warmed by the air from under the floors, 
cannot be as warm, because that air cannot heat another thing warmer 
than itself. Again, the spaces on the walls behind the plastering being 
closed top and bottom, now become dead air spaces, and serve as a cush- 
ion or non-conducting wall, tending to prevent the escape of heat, exactly 
opposite to the other plan. 

The system of floor warming and ventilation, above described and 
shown in Fig. 2, is patented by Mr. B. R. Hawley, of Chicago, and has 
been introduced into a number of dwellings and business blocks in that 
city, as well as in Kansas City, Mo., with very satisfactory results. In 
constructing a new building, it is comparatively inexpensive, and for any 
ordinary house in the country, it is not probable that the patentee's 
charges Avould amount to very much. 

Whether this particular device be used or not, builders cannot be too 
strongly urged to give the subject of ventilation more thought than has 
been bestowed upon it in years past, and whether the building be a dwell- 
ing worth $10,000, or a cot costing less than a tenth of that sum, to pro- 
vide some natural means for admitting the pure air and exhausting the 
foul. The life of an occupant is just as precious in the cot as the castle, 
and if only a very little common sense is exercised, the ventilation may 
be as perfect in one case as the other. The use of open fire-places should 
be encouraged always. Besides being infinitely more cheerful than the 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. 119 

stove, or that other barbarous contrivance, the hot-air furnace, they are 
great natural aids to ventilation, the heated draft up the chimney exhaust- 
ing the air from the bottom of the room, and drawing the warmer and 
purer air downward. In the preceding sentence the word "barbarous." 
in relation to furnaces, was used advisedly. It is fast becoming known 
to those wh:> make the subject a study that furnace heat is the most in- 
jurious to health of any that can be obtained. It consists of a volume of 
hot-air full of minute particles of dust, projected into a room in such a 
manner as to go straight to the ceiling, whence it only settles down 
slowly, as it is compelled to by the pressure of the quantity which comes 
steadily from the register. The floor of such a room is always cold, and 
the occupants experience the unnatural and injurious effect of cold feet 
and hot heads. If any parent will hold a thermometer on the floor of a 
furnace-heated room, then five feet above, and finally at the ceiling, he 
or she will never thereafter suffer a child to spend its time on the carpet. 
The only way in which furnace heat can be rendered even tolerable is by 
the use of the expensive Ruttan system, which consists of a double set of 
pipes and registers ; one to deliver the hot air into the room, in the ordin- 
ary way, and the other to take the cold air out by way of the chimney, 
into which the extra set of pipes conduct it. 

The writer has seen the following simple and inexpensive arrangement 
ventilate a room quite thoroughly: From the elbow of the pipe to an 
ordinary kitchen stove, a smaller pipe was carried down to within three 
or four inches of the floor. This in no way interfered with the draft to 
the stove, and served as an excellent exhaust for the air at the bottom of 
the room ; the greater the heat and current of air up the chimney the 
more thoroughly would the exhaust pipe do its work. The entire ab- 
sence of odors that naturally arise from cooking proved that it was cap- 
able of changing the air of the room often enough to keep it in at least a 
reasonably healthy condition. The same device, which anyone can attach 
to any ordinary wood or coal stove, will have the same effect upon any 
room. The greatest nonsense in the world is the idea of a base heating 
stove, i.e., one that will radiate heat laterally from its base near the floor, 
sufficient to warm the lower stratum of air. No heating apparatus can 
be made to do that unless means are provided for expelling the stagnant 
air always found on the bottom of an illy- ventilated room. Another thing : 
air cannot be exhausted from the bottom of a room satisfactorily unless 
heat is in some way applied to the ventilating shaft. If a hole is made 
near the floor in the flue of a chimney that is in constant use, the ventila- 
tion will be successful. If the heat is shut off, however, the column of 
air in the flue, upon getting cold, will be liable to remain stationary, if, 
indeed, it does not reverse its motion and flow into, instead of out of, the 
room . A very little practical study of one of the simplest of nature's 



120 RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 

laws will not only add comfort to the home, but guarantee health and 
longer life to its inmates. It is a fact both well and widely known, that a 
great many persons become ill without knowing the nature of the disease, 
and even the skill of the physician is baffled. There is no more prolific 
cause of such maladies than living, and especially sleeping, in poorly ven- 
tilated rooms. Pure air is just as essential to life andhealth as wholesome 
food. No onewould recommend decayed vegetables orfruit as a healthy 
diet ; yet people live day after day breathing an atmosphere that is just 
as unwholesome and equally injurious to health. 



RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 



The tables on the following pages will be found useful to retail lumber- 
men. They are prepared for the purpose of enabling the ready ascertaining 
of the number of feet and fractions of a foot contained in a given number of 
pieces of any size of timber ordinarily kept in stock, from twelve to thirty 
feet in length, and from 1x12 to 12x12 in size. The top line in each table 
shows the exact fractions over a full foot in each size. In all others, frac- 
tions under one-half are excluded, and over one-half added. To ascertain 
the number of feet in a given number of pieces of any size named in the 
tables, find the length in the top line and the number of pieces at the left 
hand and trace the two lines to their junction, where the number of feet 
will be found. To ascertain the feet in any number of pieces not speci- 
fied, add together the two or more quantities making that number. For 
example : To find the number of feet and fractions of a foot in twenty- 
five pieces of 2x4 sixteens, run down the sixteen foot column to its junc- 
tion with the twenty at the left, the number found there being 240; then 
trace the line from five at the left hand to its junction with the sixteen 
foot column, obtaining as the result, 53, Avhich added to the 240 gives 293 
feet, the correct amount in twenty-five pieces of 2x4 sixteens. If greater 
lengths are required, double the figures in the columns which are multi- 
ples of those required. Thus : for thirty-two double sixteen; for thirty- 
four add the sixteen and eighteen together. This process will give all the 
lengths up to sixty feet. 



RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 



121 



1X8 or 2X4. 
Fractions over *2 added, others excluded. 



No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24: 


26 


28 


30 

20 
40 


1 


8 


9*3 


10% 


12 


13 13 


I423 


16 


17% 


18 23 


2 


16 


19 


21 


24 


27 


29 


32 


35 


37 


3 


24 


28 


32 


36 


4 


44 


48 


52 


57 


60 


4 


32 


37 


43 


48 


53 


59 


64 


69 


75 


80 


5 


40 


47 


53 


60 


67 


73 


8) 


87 


93 


100 


6 


48 


56 


64 


72 


8" 


88 


96 


104 


112 


120 


7 


56 


65 


75 


84 


93 


103 


112 


121 


126 


140 


8 


64 


751 85 


96 


107 


117 


128 


139 


149 


160 


9 


72 


84 


96 


108 


12C 


132 


144 


156 


168 


180 


JO 


80 


93 


107 


120 


133 


147 


160 


173 


187 


200 


20 


160 


187 


213 


240 


267 


293 


320 


347 


373 


400 


SO 


4U0 


467 


533 


600 


667 


733 


800 


867 


917 


1000 


100 


800 


933 


1067 


1200|133c 


1467 


1600 


17331867 


ZOOO 



1X12, 2X6 or 3X4- 



Fractions over % added, others excluded. 



No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 
30 


1 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


2 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


52 


56 


60 


3 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


78 


84 


90 


4 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


104 


112 


120 


S 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


6 


72 


84 


96 


108 


120 


132 


144 


156 


168 


180 


7 


84 


98 


112 


126 


140 


154 


168 


182 


196 


210 


8 


96 


112 


128 


144 


160 


176 


192 


20? 


224 


240 


9 


108 


126 


144 


162 


180 


198 


216 


234 


252 


270 


IO 


120 


140 


160 


180 


200 


220 


240 


260 


28*' 


300 


20 


240 


280 


320 


360 


400 


440 


480 


520 


5(30 


600 


SO 


600 


700 


800 


900 


1000 


1100 


1200 


1300 


1400 


1500 


100 


1200 


1400 


1600J1800 


2000 


2200 


2400 


2600 


2800 


3000 



122 



RETAILER'S HEADY RECKONER. 



9X16 or 12X12. 
Fractions over ^ added, others excluded. 



No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


144 


168 


102 


210 


240 


264 


288 


312 


336 


360 


2 


288 


336 


384 


432 


480 


528 


576 


621 


672 


720 


3 


432 


504 


576 


648 


720 


792 


864 


936 


1008 


1080 


4 


576 


672 
840 


768 


864 


960 


1056 


1152 


1248 


1344 
1680 


1440 


5 


720 


960 


L080 


1280 


1320 


1440 


1560 


1800 


6 


864 


1008 


1152 


1296 


1440 


1584 


1728 


1872 


2016 


2160 


7 


1008 


1176 


1344 


1512 


1680 


1848 


2016 


2184 


2352 


2520 


8 


1152 


1344 


1536 


1728 


1920 


2112 


2304 


2496 


2688 


2880 


it 


1296 


1512 


1728 


1944 


2160 


2376 


2592 


2808 


3024 


3240 


10 


1440 


1680 


1920 


2160 


2400 


2640 


2880 


3120 


3360 


3600 


20 


2880 


3360 


3840 


43 .'0 


4800 


5280 


5760 


6240,6720 


7200 


SO 


7200 


8400 

16800 


9600 


10800 


12000 
24000 


13200 


14400 


15600 | 16800 


18000 


too 


14400 


19200 


21600 


26400 


28800 


31200| 33600 


36000 



4X7 and 2X14. 







Fractions over ^ addec 


, others excluded. 






No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


28 


322s 


37 % 


42 


46 2 3 


51*3 


56 


002 3 


65 1 3 


70 


2 


56 

84 


65 


75 


84 


93 


103 


112 


121 


131 


140 


3 


98 
131 


112 


126 


140 


154 

205 


168 


182 


196 210 


4 


112 


149 


168 


187 


224 


243 


261 


280 


S 


140 


163 


187 


210 


233 

280 


257 


280 


303 


327 


350 


6 


168 


196 


224 


252 


308 


336 


364 


392 


420 


7 


196 


2-29 


26? 


294 


327 


359 


392 


425 


457 


490 


8 
9 


224 


261 


299 


336 


373 


411 


448 


485 


523 


560 


252 


294 


336 


378 


420 


462 


504 


546 


588 


630 


10 


280 


327 


373 


420 


467 


513 


560 


607 


653 


700 


20 


560 


654 


747 


840 


934 


1027 


1120 


1213 


1307 


(400 


SO 

100 

I 


1400 


1632 


1867 


2100 


2333 


2567 


2800 


3033 


3267 


3500 


2800 


3267 


3733 


4200 


4667 


5133 


5600 


6067 


6533 


7000 



RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 



123 



2X12, 3X8 or 4X6. 
Fractions over *2 added, others excluded. 



No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


xS 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


SO 


1 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


4A 


48 


52 


56 
112 


60 


2 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


104 


120 


3 


72 


84 


96 


1(8 


120 


132 


144 


156 


168 


180 


4 


9b' 


112 


128 


144 


160 


176 


192 


208 


224 1 240 


5 


120 


14o 


160 


180 


200 


220 


240 


260 


280 


300 


6 


144 


168 


192 


216 


240 


264 


288 


312 


336 


360 


7 


168 


196 


224 


252 


280 
320 
360 


3u8 


336 


364 


392 

448 


420 


8 


192 


224 
252 
280 


2.6 


288 


352 
396 


384 


416 


480 


9 


216 


288 


324 
360 


432 


468 


504 
560 


540 


10 


240 


3-0 


400 


410 


480 


520 


600 


20 


480 


560 


640 


720 


800 


880 


960 1040 


1120 


1200 


50 


1200 


1400 


1600 


180" 


2000 


220« 


2400J 2600 2800 


3000 


too 


-400 


2800 


3200 


3600 


4000 


4400 


4800^2005600 


6000 



1X18, 2X9 or 3X6. 







Fractions over ^ added, others excluded. 






No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 J 30 


1 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


33 


36 


39 


42 


45 


2 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


78 


84 


90 


3 


54 


63 


72 
96 


81 


90 


99 


108 


117 


126 


135 


4 


72 


84 


108 


120 


132 


144 


156 


168 


180 


5 


90 


105 


1^0 


135 


150 


165 


180 


195 


210 


225 


6 


108 


126 


144 


162 


180 
210 


198 


216 


234 


252 


270 


7 


126 


147 


168 


189 


231 


252 


273 


294 


315 


8 
O 


144 


168 


192 


216 


240 


264 


288 
324 


312 


336 


360 


162 


189 


216 


243 


270 


297 


351 


378 


405 


10 


180 


210 


240 


270 


300 


330 


360 


390 


420 


450 


20 


360 


420 


480 


540 


600 


660 


720 


780 


840 


900 


SO 


900 


1050 


1200 


1350 


1500 


1650 


1800 


1950 2100 


2250 


lOO 


1800 


2100 


2400 


2700 


3000 


3300 


3600 


3900,4200 4500 



124 



RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 



1X16, 2X8 or 4X4. 







Fractions over ^ added 


, others excluded. 






No. 
Pieces 


12 


« 


10 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 

40 

80 


l 


16 


18 23 


2118 


24 


26 % 


29^ 


32 


34% 


37i<3 


a 


32 


37 


43 


48 


53 


59 


64 


69 


7. f 


3 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


104 


112 


120 


4 


G4 


75 


85 


96 


107 


117 


128 


139 


149 


160 


S 


80 


93 


107 


120 


133 


147 


160 


173 


187 


200 





96 


112 


128 


144 


160 


176 


192 


208 


224 


240 


7 


1L2 


131 


149 


108 


187 


205 


2:24 


243 


261 


280 


8 


128 


149 


171 


192 


213 


235 
264 


256 


277 


299 


320 





144 


168 


19- 


216 


240 


288 


312 


336 


360 
400 


10 


1G0 


187 


213 


240 


267 


293 


320 


347 


373 


20 


320 


373 


427 


480 


533 


587 


640 


693 


747 


800 


SO 


800 


933 


1067 


1200 


1333 


1467 


1600 


1733 


1867 


2000 


100 


1600 


1867 


2133 


.400 


2667 


2933 


32003467 3733 

l 1 


4000 



2 1 -X8, 2X10 or 4X5. 







Fractions over ^ added, others excluded. 






No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


IS 


20 


22 
362 3 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


20 


23^2 


2623 


.30 


33!3 


40 


43 1 3 l 4623 


50 


2 


40 


47 


53 


60 


67 


73 


80 


87 


93 


100 


3 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


4 


80 


93 


107 


120 


133 


147 


160 


173 


187 


200 


8 


100 


117 


133 


150 


167 


183 


200 


217 


233 


250 


G 


120 


140 


160 


180 


200 


220 


240 


260 


280 


300 


7 


140 


163 


187 


210 


233 


257 


280 


303 


327 


350 


8 


160 


187 


213 


240 


267 


29 :i 


320 


347 


373 


400 


!> 


180 


210 


240 


270 


300 


330 


360 


390 


420 


450 


IO 


200 


233 


267 


300 


333 


367 


400 


433 


467 


500 


20 


400 


467 


533 


600 


667 


733 


8 tO 


867 


933 


1000 


SO 


1000 


1167il33< 


150O 


1667 


1833 


2000 


2167 


2333 


2500 


IOO 


2000 


23332667 


3000 


3333 


3667 


4000 


4333J4667 


5000 



RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 



125 



2X15, 2^X12, 3X10 or 5X6. 
Fractions over ^ added, others excluded. 



No. 

Piecos 


12 


14 


16 


IS 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


30 


3s| 40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


65 


70 


75 


2 


60 


70| 80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


3 
4 
~5 


90 


105| 120 


135 


150 


165 


180 


195 


210 


225 


120 


140| 160 


180 


200 


220 


240 


260 


280 


300 


ISO 


175 200 


225 


250 


275 


300 


325 


350 


375 


6 


180 


210 240 


270 


300 


330 


360 


390 


420 


450 


7 


210 


245 280 


315 


350 


385 


420 


455 


490 


525 


8 


240 


280 320 


360 


400 


440 


480 


520 


560 


600 


9 


270 


315 


360 


405 


450 


495 


540 


585 


630 


675 


10 


300 


350 


400 


450 


500 


550 


600 


650 


700 


750 


20 


600 


700 


800 


900 


1000 


1100 


1200 


1300 


1400 


1500 


50 


1500 


1750 


2000 


2250 


2500 


2750 


3000 


3250 


3500 


3750 


100 


^000^500 


4000 


4500 


5001 


5500 


6000 


6500 


7000 


7500 



2X16 and 4X8. 







Fractions over ^ added, others excluded. 






No. 

Pioc:3 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


oo 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


32 


37*3 


42 2 3 


48 


53^ 


5823 


64 


69i3'712 3 | 80 


2 


64 


75 


85 


96 


107 


117 


128 


139 


149 160 


3 


96 


112 


1-2* 


144 


160 


176 


192 


208 


2241 240 


4 

5~ 


128 
160 


149 


171 


192 


213 


235 


256 


277 


299 


320 


187 


213 


240 


267 


293 


320 


347 


373 


400 


6 


192 


224 


256 


288 


320 


352 


384 


416 


448 


480 


7 


224 


261 


299 


330 


373 


411 


448 


485 


523 


560 


8 


256 


299 


341 


384 


427 
480 


469 


512 


55j 


597 


640 



10 


288 


336 


384 


432 


528 


576 


624 


672 


720 


320 


373 


427 


480 


533 


587 


640 


693 


717 


800 


20 


640 


747 


853 


960 


1066 


1173 


1280 


1387 


1493 


1600 


50 


1600 


1867 


2o34 


2400 


2665 


2)33 


3200 


3467 


373! 


4000 


lOO 


3200 


3734 


4266 


4800 


5330 


5867 


6400 


6933 


7469 


8000 



126 



RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 



2X18,3X12 or 6X6. 
Fractions over *% added, others excluded. 



No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


78 


81 


90 


2 


72 


84 


96 


108 


120 


132 


144 


156 


168 


180 


3 


108 


126 


144 


162 


180 


198 


216 


234 


252 


270 


4 


144 


168 


192 


216 


240 


264 


28b 


312 


336 


360 


5 


180 


210 


240 


270 


300 


330 


360 


390 


420 


450 


6 


216 


252 


288 


324 


360 


396 


432 


468 


504 


540 


7 


252 


294 


336 


378 


420 


462 


504 


546 


588 


630 


8 


288 


336 


384 


432 


480 


528 


576 


624 


672 


720 


9 


324 


378 


432 


486 


540 


594 


64b 


702 


756 


810 


10 


360 


420 


480 


540 


600 


660 


720 


7S0 


840 


900 


20 


720 


840 


960 


1080 


120(i 


1320 


1440 


1560 


1680 


1800 


50 


1800 
3600 


2100 


2400 


2700 


3000 


3300 


3600 


3900 


4200 


4500 


100 


4200 


4800 


5400 


6000 


6600 


7200 


7800 


8400 


9000 



4X12 or 6X8. 



Fractions over ^ added, others excluded. 



No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


104 


112 


120 


2 


96 


112 


128 


144 


160 


176 


192 


208 


224 


240 


3 


144 


168 


192 


216 


240 


264 


288 


312 


3j6 


360 


4 
5 


192 


224 


256 
320 


288 


320 


352 


384 


416 


448 


480 


240 


230 


360 


400 


440 


480 


520 


560 


600 


6 

7 


288 
336 


336 


384 
448 


432 


480 


528 


576 
672 


624 


672 


720 


392 


504 


560 


616 


728 


784 


840 


8 


384 
432 


448 


512 


576 


640 


704 


768 


832 


896 


960 


10 

20 


504 


576 


648 


720 


792 


864 


9361008 


1080 


480 


560 

1120 


640 


720 


800 
1600 


880 
1760 


960 


1040 


1120 


1200 


960 


1280 


1440 


1920 


2080 


2240 


2400 


£0 


2400 


2800 


3200 


3600 


4000 


4400 


4800 


5200 


5600 6000 


100 


4800 


5600 


6400 


7200 


8000 


8800 


9600 


10400 


11200J 12000 



RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 



127 



10X10 or 8X12? 







Fractions over ^ added 


, others excluded. 






Nco. 
Piees 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


100 


1162.3 


133 ^ 


150 


16623 


183 *3 


200 


216 23 


233*3 


250 
500 


2 


200 


233 


267 


300 


333 


367 


400 


433 


467 


3 


300 


350 


400 


450 


500 


550 


600 


650 


700 


750 


4 


400 


467 


533 


600 


667 


733 


800 


867 


933 


1000 


5 

6 


500 


583 


667 


750 


833 


917 


1000 


1083 


1167 


1250 


600 


700 


800 


900 


1000 


1100 


1200 


1300 


1400 


1500 


7 


700 


817 


933 


1050 


1167 


1283 


1400 


1517 


1633 


1750 


8 


800 


933 


1067 


1200 


1333 


1467 


1600 


1733 


1867 


2000 


9 


900 


1050 


1200 


1350 


1500 


1650 


1800 


1950 


2100 


2250 


lO 


1000 


1167 


1333 


1500 


1667 


1833 


2000 


2167 


2333 


2500 


20 


2000 


2333 


2667 


3000 


33^3 


3667 


4000 


4333 


4667 


5000 


SO 


5000 


5833 


6667 


7500 


8333 


9167 


10000 


10833 


11667 


12500 


lOO 


10000 


11667 


13333 


15000 


16667 


18333 


20000 


21667 


23333 


25000 



10X12 or 8X15. 







Fractions over *2 added, others excluded. 






No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


12f 


140 


160 


180 


200 


220 


240 


260 


2Q0 


300 


2 


240 


280 


320 


360 


400 


440 


480 


520 


560 


600 


3 
4~ 


360 


420 


480 


540 


600 


660 


720 


780 


840 


900 


480 


560 


640 


720 


800 


880 


960 


1040 


1120 


1200 


■ S 


600 


700 


800 


900 


1000 


1100 


1200 


1300 


1400 


1500 


6 


720 


840 


960 


1080 


1200 


1320 


1440 


1560 


'680 


1800 


7 


840 


980 


1120 


1260 


1400 


1540 


1680 


1820 


1960 


2100 


8 


960 


1120 


1280 


1440 


1600 


1760 


1920 


208* 


2240 


2400 


9 


1080 


1260 


1440 


1620 


1800 


1980 


2160 


2340 


2520 


2700 


10 


120' 


1400 


1600 


1800 


2000 


2200 


2400 


2600 


2800 


3000 


20 


2400 


2800 


3200 


3600 


4000 


4400 


4800 


5200 


5600 


6000 


50 


6000 


7000 


8000 


9000 


ioooo 


11000 


12000 


13000 


14000 


15000 


100 


12000 


14000 


16000 


18000 


20000 


22000 


24000 


26000 


28000 


30000 



RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 



4X16 and 8X8. 
Fractions over ^ added, others excluded. 



No. 
Pieces 

1 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


2G 


28 


30 


64 


74 2 3 


85 ^ 


96 


107 


1171s 


128 


138*3 


149 *3 


160 


2 


128 


149 


171 


192 


213 


235 


256 


277 


299 


320 


3 


192 


224 


256 

341 


288 


320 


352 


384 


416 


418 


480 


4 


256 


299 


384 


427 


469 


512 


555 


597 


640 


5 


320 


373 
448 


427 


480 


533 


587 


640 


693 

832 


747 


800 


6 


384 


512 


576 


640 


704 


768 


896 


960 


7 


448 


523 


597 


672 


747 


821 


896 


971 


1045 


1120 


8 


512 
576 


597 


683 


768 


853 


939 
1 0."i 6 


1024 


1109 


1195 


1280 


i) 


672 


768 


864 


960 


1152 


1248 
1387 


1344 


1440 


10 


640 


747 


853 


96011067 


1173 


1280 


1493 


1600 


20 


1280 
3200 


1493 


1707 


1920 
4800 


2133 


2347 


2560 


2773 


2987 


3200 


SO 


373 a 


4267 


5333 


5867 


6400 


6933 


7467 


8000 


100 


6400 


7467 


8535 


9600j 10667 


11733 


12800 


13868 


14933 


16000 



8X10 or 5X16. 







Fractions over *2 added 


, others excluded. 






No. 
Piecos 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


80 


93^8 


106% 


120 


133 ?3 


146% 


160 


173 % 


186% 


200 


2 


160 


187 


213 


240 


267 


293 


320 


347 


373 


400 


3 


240 


280 


320 


360 


400 


440 


480 


520 


560 


600 


4 


320 


373 


427 


480 


533 


587 


640 


693 


747 


800 


5 


400 


467 


533 


600 


667 


733 


800 


867 


933 


1000 


6 


480 


560 


640 


720 


800 


880 


960 


1040 


1120 


1200 


7 


560 


653 


747 


840 


933 


1027 


1120 


1213 


1307 
1493 


1400 


8 


640 


747 853 


960 


1067 


1173 


1280 


1387 


1600 


9 


720 


840 


961) 1080 


1200 
1333 


1320 


1440 156( 
1600 173:1 


1680 


1800 


10 
20 


800 


933 


1067 


1200 


1467 


1867 


2000 


1600 


1867 


2133 


24002667 


2933 


32003467 


3733 


4000 


50 


4000 


4667 


5333 


6000;6667 


7333 

14667 


80008667 


9333 


10000 


100 


8000 


9334 


10667 


12000 


13333 


16000 17337 


18667 


20000 



RETAILER'S READY RECKONER. 



129 



3X14 or GX7- 
Fractions over *2 added, others excluded. 



No. 
Pieces 


12 


14 


16 


IS 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


1 


42 


49 


56 


63 


70 


77 


84 


91 


98 


105 


2 


84 


08 


112 


126 


140 


154 


168 


182 


190 


210 


3 


126 


147 


168 


189 


2lu 


231 


232 


273 


294 


315 


4 
5 


108 


19; 


224 
!i8" 


252 


280 


308 
385 


336 


364 
455 


392 


420 


210 


245 


315 


350 


420 


490 


525 


6 


252 


294 


336 


378 


420 


462 


504 


546 


588 


630 


7 


2f>4 


343 


392 


441 


490 


£39 


588 


637 


686 


735 


8 


336 


392 


448 


504 


56 


616 


672 


728 


784 


840 





378 


441 


501 


567 


630 


(93 


756 


819 


882 


945 


JO 


420 


490 


560 


630 


700 


770 


84<> 


910 


980 


1050 


20 


840 


980 


1120 


1260 


1400,15401680 


1820 


1960 


2100 


50 


2100 


245< 


2800 


3150 


3:003850|4200 


4550 


4900 


5250 


100 


4200 


4900 


3600 


630C 


7000J7700J8400 


9100 


9800 


10500 



7X20 and 10x14. 







Fractions over ^ added, others excluded. 






No. 
Pieces 

1 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


140 


163*3 


18623 


210 


233 13 


256% 


280 


303 ^ 


32623J 350 


2 


280 


327 


373 


420 


467 


513 


560 


607 


653 


700 


3 


4 JO 


490 


560 


630 


700 


770 


840 


910 


980 


1050 


4 


560 


653 


747 


840 
1050 


933 


K27 
1283 


1120 


1213 


1307 


1400 


5 


700 


817 


933 


1167 


1400 


1517 


1633 


1750 


6 


840 


980 


1120 


1260 


1400 


1540 


1680 


1820 


1960 


2100 


7 


980 


1143 


13071470 


1633 


1797 


1060 


212J 


J287 


2150 


8 


1120 


1307 


149<|168< 


1867 


2053 


2240 


2427 


2613 


2800 





1260 


1470 


108O|1890 


2100 


2310 


252<> 


2730 


2940 


3150 


10 


1400 


16:?3 


1867 2100 


2333 


2567 


2800 


3033 


3267 


3500 


20 


2800 


3267J3733 


4200 


4667 


5133 


5600 


6067 


6533 


7000 


50 7000 8167'9333 


10500 


11667 


12833 


14000 


15167 


16333 


17500 
35000 


lOO iU000J16333j 18667 


21000 


23333 


25667 


28000 30333 


32667 



ISO PLANING MILL MACHINEE. 



PLANING-MILL MACHINERY. 



ITS SELECTION, ARRANGEMENT AND CARE. 

In times when business must be done on small margins, and when the 
most lively competition presses all branches of trade and manufacture, 
a new significance is given to the aphorism that " economy is wealth." 
Though not its derivative signification, economy really means, "well- 
ordered arrangement," and the benefits to be derived from such a system 
as Avill produce the best and greatest results Avith the least expenditure, 
are perhaps more marked in the manufacture of wood into its various 
forms of use than in any other line of industry. Often the same firm will 
own the pine land, cut the logs, haul them to streams controlled by them- 
selves, drive them to their saw-mills, saw them, convey the mill product 
in their own vessels to the manufacturing and wholesale points, unload 
at their private docks, kiln-dry, and manufacture at their own planing- 
"mills into the many forms demanded by the trade, thence shipping di- 
rectly to the retail markets ; thus bringing under one management all the 
various stages of production, manufacture and transportation that, in 
most lines, are divided among many parties. 

This concentration of such various and far-extended lines of operation 
calls for the highest executive ability and the keenest insight into detail, 
lest the advantage to be gained by leading into one channel so many 
streams of industry should be lost by the friction and leakage thereby 
likely to result. 

Perhaps at no point in this chain of operations is the need of the per- 
sonal oversight of the owner greater than at the mills, and there it is often 
most lacking. Tor this reason, the man of small means who simply owns 
or runs a mill, but who applies practical and scientific knowledge in its 
constant, personal oversight, can successfully compete with the great 
firms whose immense affairs cannot be conducted with such absolute 
economy as rules in his smaller establishment. The object of these 
pages is to offer a statement of facts and some suggestions, based on the 
experience of practical mill men and professional engineers, in regard to 
the best and most economical construction and arrangement of planing- 
mill machinery. 

In studying this subject, the first thing that comes under consideration is 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 131 

the character and amount of power required, and as steam power is almost 
entirely used in planing-mills the discussion of water-power will be omit- 
ted and steam power will be alone considered. 

In very few lines of manufacture are such varying and sudden demands 
made upon the power as in a planing-mill. The sudden starting of heavy 
planers and saws strains an engine to its utmost, and if it is not strong 
enough, costly repairs and delays draw heavily upon the profits of the 
business. The work to be done should be accurately calculated, and the 
engine and boilers adapted to this result, making them powerful enough 
to drive all the machinery intended to be put in, even if all started at 
once. If the boilers have too limited steam room, excessively hot fires 
must be kept up, in order to generate steam of sufficiently high tempera- 
ture and pressure to supply the demand, and the result is that there is 
danger of burning the boiler, and unequal expansions and contractions 
cause leakage, fractures, etc., and drawing more steam from a boiler than 
it was calculated to supply, often causes pulsation which soon tears it to 
pieces. 

The kinds of boilers and engines required for various mills depends so 
much on local conditions that no one form can be recommended as ap- 
plicable to all of them . Proprietors and managers and engineers have 
their preferences, and can profit by the experience of other mills in simi- 
lar localities. A few years ago furnaces were built with a view to con- 
suming all the fuel possible for the purpose of getting rid of the shavings ; 
but a change has taken place and now economy in fuel is a necessity. 
There is no doubt that the more simple the construction of a boiler the 
less likely it is to get out of order, and the less care and skill is required 
on the part of the fireman or engineer, and where economy of fuel is a 
secondary matter, the plain cylinder boiler is the safest and most easily 
cared for and repaired. Where proper attention and skill can be given to 
the care cf a boiler, experience has shown that the tubular gives the best 
results; the flue boiler is, however, very extensively used in planing, 
mills, as a practical and valuable compromise between the cylinder and 
tubular forms. But whatever form is determined upon, if the engineer 
has not a thorough technical knowledge of the subject, a responsible firm 
should be selected to build it, and to them, having been informed of the 
kind and amount of work required, should be intrusted the proportions. 
But some principles can be profitably laid down for the guidance of the 
purchaser. 

The size of the water and steam room of a boiler should be determined, 
partly, by the character of the fuel. It is evident that in a fire fed by shav- 
ings and mill refuse there cannot be maintained a steady heat, and with 
a small qu antity of water the temperature would change with every change 
of the fire, while a larger amount of water would retain heat for a longer 



132 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 



time, and the amount of steam given off would not be sensibly affected in 
so short a time. 

Many of the best authorities disparage the value of the dome. It adds 
but very little to the steam capacity, while it weakens the boiler to a dis- 
proportionate extent. A steam dome of ordinary size will add but about 
one-tenth to the steam capacity of the boiler. It would act as an anti- 
primer, and would supply drier steam if the metal of which it is made 
were kept at the same, or higher, temperature as the other part of the 
boiler ; but, as the dome is usually exposed to the action of the air, it is 
kept at a lower temperature than the main part of the boiler, and cools 
the steam coming in contact with it, producing partial condensation: and 
thus it happens that steam taken from a dome is often more wet than that 
in any other part of the boiler. While the steam room should be ample to 
meet sudden demands from the engine, the reservoir of power is mainly 
in the heated water. With a working pressure of 60 pounds, each cubic 
foot of steam in the boiler will produce only 4.65 cubic feet of steam at 
atmospheric pressure ; but one cubic foot of water in the boiler will pro- 
duce nearly 35 times that amount, as at 60 pounds pressure the tempera- 
ture of the water is 307.5°, or 95.5° above the boiling point at atmos- 
pheric pressure ; and as every degree of heat added to water already at 
212° may be taken as competent to generate 1.7 cubic feet of steam, 95.5° 
will produce 162.35 cubic feet, or nearly 35 times as much as one cubic 
foot of steam at 60 pounds pressure. 

In general, according to the best authorities, water should occupy 
three fourths of the boiler room, and, within limits, the larger the boiler, 
the more economical will be the use of fuel. The following table may 
be of value, it is given by Roper, and can be relied upon as being as ac- 
curate as any that can be obtained : 
Table Showing the Proper Diameter and Height of Chimney for any 
Kind of Fuel. 



NOMINAL HORSE- 
POWER OP BOILER. 


HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY 
IN FEET. 


INSIDE DIAMETER AT TOP. 


.. 10 


60 




12 


75 


1 " 2 


« 


16... 


90 


1 " 4 


« 


.. 20 


99 


1 " 5 


« 


. 30 . 


. 105 


1 " 9 


« 


50 


120 


2 feet 2 


« 


70 


120 


2 *' 6 


M 


.. 90... 


...120 


2 "10 


« 


120 


135 


3 « 2 

3 " 7 


" 


160... 


150 


« 


2C0 . 


..165 


3 "11 


U 


250 


180 


4 " 4 






Tor stationary boilers, the area of the chimney should be one-fifth 



PLANING MILL MACHINEEY. 133 

greater than the combined area of all the flues or tubes. In boilers pro- 
vided with any other means of draught, such as a steam-jet or a fan- 
blower, the size of the chimney is not so important as it is in cases where 
the draught is produced solely by the chimney. 

Rule for finding the. Required Area of Chimney for any Boiler. — Multiply 
the nominal horse-power of the boiler by 112, and divide the product by 
the square root of the height of the cnimney in feet. The quotient will 
be the required area in square inches. 

According to the experiments of Mr.Isherwood, the best proportion for 
the draught area is one-eighth of the area of the grate. Many construc- 
tors, however, make it greater, amounting in some cases to one-sevt-nth 
and one-sixth. Others make it less, one-tenth being not uncommon. But 
experience has shown one-eighth to be the most practical proportion, and 
the one capable of producing the most satisfactory results." 

It is unnecessary here to give figures as to the number and size of the 
flues, amount of heating surface, size of fire-box, ash-pit, etc., which are 
furnished by the engineer in charge. The boiler room should either be 
located at a distance from the mill, or should be so protected by brick or 
iron covered walls that there will be no danger of a fire starting there 
communicating with the main building. 

The engine room should also be entirely separated from the mill, but, 
in this case, for protection to the engine, as the dust which abounds in a 
planing-mill should be kept from the engine as far as possible. 

For planing-mill use an engine is to be recommended that has as little 
brass and bright work as possible, as, in spite of all precautions, it cannot 
be kept clean without being continually wiped off, and engineers soon tire 
of this, the consequence of which is it goes about half clean, when it looks 
worse than the wrought iron painted, as this can be wiped once a day 
and look comparatively clean. It is well to repeat what has been men- 
tioned as to the power of engines. The engine should be large enough to 
drive, easily, all the machinery at once, that is intended to be put in, and 
a little extra power will be an advantage in the long run. To insure 
steady motion the driving pulley should be as large as expedient and of a 
weight of 600 pounds to the inch of cylinder diameter, and the piston 
should have a speed of from 350 to 400 feet per minute. 

To find the horse-power of an engine, multiply the area of the piston 
in square inches, by the speed of the piston in feet per minute, and divide 
the product by 33,000. The result is the horse-power vahie of one pound 
mean effective pressure, and if multiplied by the whole mean effective 
pressure, will give the indicated horse-power. Another nearly correct 
method, easy to remember and correct enough for ordinary purposes, is 
as follows: Multiply together the square of the diameter of the cylinder 
in inches, the length of the stroke in inches, the number of revolutions 



134 PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 

per minute, and the steam pressure ; multiply the product by four and 
cut off six figures at the right. 

Not infrequently is it the case that a person wishes to approximately 
determine the transmitting power of a given size without the trouble of 
making a calculation, and to assist this class the following table is given : 
Cylinder. 7^x12 in. .10 horse-power ' 



8 


xl5 




12 


8 


xl6 


" 


15 


9 


xl5 


" 


15 


16 


xl4 


" 


20 


10 


xl5 


" 


20 


10 


x20 


" 


25 


12 


xl5 


" 


25 



Cylinder.12 


x20in 


.30 horse-power 


12 


x24 " 


35 


" 14 


x20 " 


40 


14 


x24 " 


50 


" 15 


x24 " 


55 


16 


x30 " 


85 


" 16 


x3l " 


90 



The amount of power necessary to drive a planing-mill can easily be 
calculated from the figures given below : 

30 inch surf acer, 1 side 8 horse-power. 

30 *' " 2 " 10 

24 " 1 " 6 

24 ■ " 2 " 8 

14 " planing and matching machine 6 " 

14 " " " " with 2 cylinders. 7 

8 " moulding machine, 4 sides 5 " 

6 " " " 4 " 3 

Circular saws, for each inch of cut above table. . 1 " 

Band resawing machine, to 1 inch of blade 3 

Blower for shavings 5 to 8 " 

These figures are mostly from J. E. Richard's calculations, and are as 
nearly correct as can be made. 



SHAFTING AND PULLEYS. 

Following the subject of power will appropriately come the considera- 
tion of the methods by which the power is transferred from the engine 
to the machinery; viz. : shafting, with the accompanying bearings, hang- 
ers, pulleys, etc., and the modes of erecting them. 

Tables of strength of materials show that cold rolled shafting is 
much superior to the hot rolled for whatever purpose it is used. Its re- 
sistance to torsion, or twisting, is 30 per cent, greater than that of the 
latter. 

Hangers for line shafting in planing-mills should be of sufficient 
strength to tear asunder the belts which are carried upon the shaft they 
support, without breaking ; otherwise serious accidents from winding 
belts may occur, in consequence of the width and strength of such belt- 
ing as it is necessary to use. A " cored section " for a hanger, is the only 
kind which should be used in such mills. These are made of sufficient 
strength by the best manufacturers, and it is therefore unnecessary to 
give here any figures as to their proper size or weight. 

They should be placed at a distance apart not to exceed 10 feet ; 8 feet 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 



135 



is far enough in large mills where a great many machines are used, and 
in fact in any mill, whether large or small, is as far as they should be 
placed. Bearings for such hangers should be 4 diameters in length in all 
cases for the size and speed now under consideration. 

The following cut illustrates the hanger most in use for heavy line shaft- 
ing, and which is adapted particularly to saw-mills, where shafting may 
often require lining up. A, A — are the supports bolted to the ceiling, or 
which may be extended to the floor. The cross-bar, B, has a long tenon 
passing clear through the mortise in the supports, and held in place by 
double sets of keys, thus allowing of vertical and lateral motion. C is a 
section of the shaft : 




Pulleys for line shafting should be built with wood faces and perfectly 
balanced, no mattter how slowly they are to be run, and all of the same 
size, or as nearly so as practicable. The size of tight and loose pulleys 
upon planers can be arranged to correspond by specifiying the proper 
size when ordering the machine from the builders. Those of 36, 38 or 40 
inches diameter are as good sizes as can be built for main line shafting, 
and with it running from 240 to 280 revolutions p?r minute, the requisite 
speed is produced for the machines. 

The difference between iron and wood pulleys as to the relative value 
for transmitting power is shown in the following table from "Haswell," 
the standard authority on such subjects, in this country : 



PORTION OF CIBCLB 

EMBRACED BY 

BELT. 



.20.... 
.30.... 

.40.... 
.50..., 
.60... 
.70.... 



RELATIVE VALUE OF LEATHER BELTS. 



ON WOODEN PUL- 




LEYS. 


ON IRON PULLEYS. 


1.80 


1.40. 


2.40 


1.70 


3.80 


2.00 


4.40 


2.40 


5.90 


2.90 


.......7.90 


3.40 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 



From this ■\ve learn that the ratio cf friction to pressure for leather belts 
upon wooden pulleys is .47, and upon smooth cast iron .24. It is claimed 
by many, especially by manufacturers of iron pulleys, that they are f a* 
superior to wood in their hold upon belts, but such assertions ai'e not 
supported either by experience cr reference io the best mechanical works 
we have. Sufficient has been said upon this subject to enable anyone to 
of ordinary intelligence to decide as to what a line t-haft and the hangers 
and pulleys for same should be. The next step to be considered is how 
to put them in working position. 

As in all other mechanical work, this involves calculation and accurate 
measurement. Great care should be exercised in obtaining a starting 
point for a main line ; for if that is wrong all will be wrong that follows. 
To determine this, the following method, illustrated by a diagram, ij used 
by some millwrights, and is the best onp, where the engine is situated 
outside the main building and where there is no convenient way of get- 
ting measurements from its crank shaft : 




In the above, a. is the driving pulley of the engine; i the wall of main 
building, and j the belt hole through the same. Draw the line c parallel 
with tl.e edges cf the pulley, through the belt hole and extend it past 
the middle, of the room, using for the purpose a small cord lightly chalked 
to make as fine a mark as possible. When the line is perfectly straight 



PLACING MILL MACHINERY 



13? 



and parallel with the pulley edges mark vipon it the center of the room* 
as indicated at c in the sketch, and upon this point place one leg of a pair 
of large dividers opening 3 or 4 feet, allowing the other to rest anywhere 
above the line, as at d. Now with d as a center, carry the distance d c 
around until it intersects the line r as at e. Mark the two points d and 
e, and with the straight edge h touching each, carry the distance d e 
around in a similar manner until it intersects the straight edge at f. 
Mark the point/ plainly upon the floor and removing the straightedge 
draw the line g the entire length of the room passing it through / and 
c. If the points have been produced With care and accuracy it will be 
perfectly parallel with the face of the driving pulley a. Th s line should 
be deeply marked in the floor that it may be permanent and distinct. 
From it as many other lines, and at such places in the room as may be 
desired and parrallel with it, can be easily produced ; also from one Story 
of a building to another. 

The centef lines can be transferred to the timbers of the ceiling and ac- 
curately fixed, at points desired, by the use of plumb lines with fine 
centering bobs. 

In putting up shafting to a J) 

center line marked upon the 
timbers, as directed, a few sug- 
gestions may be of service. 
Referring to the accompany- 
ing engraving, C represents the 
timbers to support the hang- 
ers. Frequently there are two 
timbers running parallel with 
the line shaft for supporting 
the hangers. Should such be 
the case, narrow strips of 
board may be nailed across 
them, and the same directions 
here given applied with equal 
effect. A straight edge D, made 
of a well-seasoned strip of 
pine, and planed perfectly straight upon one edge, should be placed 
upon the timbers. D should be long enough to more than cover two of 
the timbers C, so that two plumb lines can be dropped for each length of 
shafting. 

Carefully measure the length of shafting to be put up with a pair of 
calipers, and, using a steel rule or scale, set a pair of sharp-pointed divid- 
ers to a radius of half the diameter of the shaft. With one point of the 
dividers upon the center line A, describe a circle B equal to the diameter 








138 PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 

of the shaft, and drop a plumb bob -E", with the line touching the edge of 
the straight edge and circle B. The shaft is then to be moved, so as to 
j'just touch the line at E, which brings it directly under the center line. 

From a " ground line " obtained in this manner a building four stories 
in height and 200 feet in length has been fitted from top to bottom with 
shafting and machines which were belted up from the engine to the last 
machine before a single pulley was put in motion, and when the engine 
was started every belt took its proper track and followed it correctly; not 
one having to be removed or a shaft changed. 

The following method of straightening bent shafts is given by the 
mechanical journals, and is so simple and easy of application that it is 
given here : " Heat the bent shaft red hot, rest horizontally by pieces 
placed under each end, and apply water to the rounding side of it. This 
will permanently contract that side. When the shaft is black-hot about 
one inch deep, heat it red hot again as before and repeat the operation, 
and so on. This process will straighten a shaft of any diameter without 
damaging it by blows." 



SPEED OF PULLEYS. 

To find the number of revolutions of a driven pulley when its diameter 
and the diameter and number of revolutions of the driving pulley are 
given : Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its number of 
revolutions and divide the product by the diameter of the driven pulley. 

To find the size of a pulley which will make any given number of revolu- 
tions when the diameter of the driving pulley and its number of revolu- 
tions are given : Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by the num- 
ber of revolutions it makes and divide the product by the number of 
revolutions required for the driven pulley. 

To find the size of the driving pulley when the diameter of the driven, 
the number of revolutions it is to make, and the number of revolutions 
oi the driving pulley are given : Multiply the diameter of the driven pulley 
by the number of revolutions you wish it to make, and divide the product 
by the number of revolutions made by the driver. 



BELTING. 



Rules cannot be given to show the exact amount of power rubber or 
leather belts will transmit when used in a planing-mill. They may do for 
machine shops, where the motion is slower, and where belts may be kept 
well oiled and soft. In wood working establishments they are always 
more or less dry and dusty, and are kept running constantly at a high 
rate of speed. The effect of dust on the face of a belt is to materially de- 
crease its tractive power. This is also decreased in proportion to the in- 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 139 

crease in the speed of the belt, in consequence of the centrifugal force 
developed by its motion, which varies with the belt's speed, tension and 
weight. A belt moving at the rate of 5,C0U feet per minute will not have 
over three quarters of the contact shown by a diagram taken when it is 
at rest. The heavier the belt, the more powerfully is the force exerted; 
hence it is always desirable to use belts _as light in weight as possible for 
high speed machines. 

Rubber belts should never be used for high speed machinery, nor upon 
small pulleys, as they are apt to tear out at the joints and edges. For 
driving belts upon large pulleys they are by many considered superior to 
to leather. The requisites for a good driving belt are weight, strength, 
straightness and tractive power, all of which are combined to a very great 
extent in first-class rubber. The weight of a driving belt over 8 inches 
wide should be such that when running at an angle of 25° no other strain 
than its weight will be necessary. In this respect rubber excels leather, 
as its weight is about one-sixth greater. It is also affected in a less degree 
than leather by dust and dryness. 

For counter shafts with tight and loose pulleys, only the best leather 
belting should be used and all such belts over 7 inches in width should be 
double, unless for very high speeds and over small pulleys ; which if 
proper care is used in designing and building mills will never be neces- 
sary. The reason that belts should be double whenever it is practical to 
use them, is that when they come to be stretched, fewer irregularities 
develop themselves than in single belts of the same width, which, as they 
are required to run as evenly as possible, is an important point. When 
single belting must be used that known as short lap should always be 
selected, for as a rule any belt having long laps at its glue points, will 
stretch unevenly and soon wear out. In a first-class article of this kind 
the lap in no case exceeds in length the width of the belt. Never buy an 
inferior belt because its first cost is small, for it is almost certain to prove 
by far the most expensive in the end. 

For joining leather belts use studs. They will not weaken the belt as 
much as lace hooks or otner fastenings requiring holes. They are quickly 
and easily adjusted, make a smooth joint and no disagreeable noise in 
passing over a metal pulley. Rubber belts should be joined only by the 
best lace leather; any metal fastening will soon tear out. To keep leather 
belts soft, use neatsfoot oil ; never use soap, resin or any gummy sub- 
stance, as it will, in the end, destroy them. Round belts are preferable 
for driving the feed works of planers, or saws, as they occupy little room 
and allow the use of more cones. They are not so much affected by dust 
and shavings, and do not reqixire so much attention to keep them in 
order. 

Belts are too frequently injured by being allowed to rub against some 



140 PLANING MILL MACHINERY, 

fixed object, either tight pulleys upon which they try to climb, or a post 
or other contiguous object. At first it may only touch at one point, but 
if not remedied the evil grows Until a ruined belt is the result. A belt 
always runs toward the near end of a shaft, or lower side of the driven 
pulley. 



RE-SAWING MACHINES. 

The band saw is unquestionably the best re-sawer, and is now becom- 
ing generally used for that purpose. Its blade is of superior thinness, it 
is capable of being adjusted with different degrees of tension, moves in 
right lines through the lumber and at an almost unlimited rate of speed, 
and is operated wholly by rotating machinery of the simplest construc- 
tion. 

In considering saw teeth, we have first, pitch (distance between teeth) ; 
the inclination on front and back of the tooth (cutting angle) ; the form of 
the gullet, as it is termed, for holding the dust ; the width of the base of 
the tooth, so as to give sufficient stiffness to retain the set, and the kind 
of set given to the teeth. The thinness of band saw blades calls for every 
minute condition that will tend to keep them true and cause them to run 
in line. 

For softwood, a pitch equal to one-half, and a depth equal to one-fifth 
of the width of the blade, is as near a general rule as can at this time be 
suggested. For hardwood a closer pitch of one-third the width is better. 
The gullet or throat under the tooth should in all cases be circular ; not 
only to guard against breaking or checking in the corners, but to prevent 
the dust from lodging ; as with an acute angle it can be carried in quan- 
tities on to the wheels. For the front, inclination of the teeth, it should 
be sufficient, so that when the saw is sharp there will be no back thrust 
on the blade; a thing that must in each case be determined by the ob- 
servation of the operator, and the character of the timber to be cut. 

The matter of setting must be determined by the thickness of the blade 
and character of the wood. In sawing pine, or other soft woods, the 
teeth can be bent from the base, and will retain their set; but in hard- 
wood or knots this kind of setting does not last long, but soon "comes 
Out," to use a lumberman's expression. Upsetting the teeth is imprac- 
ticable with thin saws, or is at least very difficult, unless the plates are 
No. 14 or thicker. The temper besides is. or ought to be, too high in band- 
saws for upsetting. The best plan of setting developed in the writer's 
experience, in band-sawing, is a quick abrupt bend on the bottom of the 
tooth by sharp blows from a light hammer— setting the steel, as it were, 
off to one side and raising a kind of scraping edge on the cutting side of 
the tooth. It is easy to get a regular set in this manner, and it requires 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 141 

no special skill to perform it; it is, besides, sooner done, no gauge being 
required. The saw is passed over an anvil, with, its top bevelled to a 
proper angle, the bottom of the tooth projecting over the bevel, from a 
sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch, according to the amount of set re- 
quired. These remarks upon teeth relate to saws intended for power or 
positive speed. For scroll sawing or plain hand slitting it is presumed 
that no information of interest could be given, and that none is needed. 

A band saw for re-sawing should not be more than 3% inches in width 
nor less than 40 feet in length. The band wheels over which the saw runs 
should be from fi to 8 feet in diameter, made of wrought iron and with 
the rims covered with leather. The saw should have a speed of from 6,. 
000 to 8,000 feet per minute. 



PLANERS AND MATCHERS. 

For surfacing, chain feed machines possess many points of advantage. 
Lumber can be planed on them in almost any condition, even if covered 
with ice or snow, which can hardly be done with the roll feed. In start- 
ing a new chain feed planer, much attention should be given to the wear- 
ing parts of the bed and its bearing bar3 to prevent abrasion, as, if this 
evil once commences, it can never be stopped. Powdered plumbago 
(black lead) mixed with oil is the best lubricant that can be used to pre- 
vent it. The bearing bars beneath the bed should be faced with highly 
tempered steel ; the traveling bars should be made of chilled iron; the 
straps of the best grades of Norway or Swedish iron, and the rivets of 
steel. Great care should be exercised in the manufacture of these parts, 
especially such portions of them as are exposed to wear, as they are often 
required to work under heavy pressure, covered with dust and with but 
little chance for proper lubrication, and if they are not well constructed 
and cared for, they will prove a continual source of trouble and expense. 

The matcher has undoubtedly been made in a greater variety of forms 
to accomplish the same result than any other wood cutting machine in 
use. There seems to be nothing like a standard for any one of its parts 
in existence; each builder designs his machine seemingly with no other 
purpose than to make it as much unlike that of his predecessor in the 
business as possible. At least such is the opinion one would naturally 
form from an examination of the different patterns which are offered for 
sale in this country They are built with 2, 4, 6 and 8 feed-rolls, from 4 
to 14 inches in diameter, as extremes, the large ones sometimes fluted 
and the small ones with smooth surfaces and vice versa. We find cylin- 
ders varying from 4 to 10 inches in diameter, some with 2, some with 3, 
and some with 4 knives wliich are attached in divers ways. In one style 
they are inserted in the cylinder with their cutting edges projecting past 



142 PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 

its turned surface ; in another they are keyed to the cylinder and in a 
third, bolted upon it. Again, in some machines the cylinder is round as 
its name would indicate, and in others rectangular and triangular. The 
cylinders, too, are made of various materials, the most common of which 
are wrought iron, cast iron and brass. In matcher or side cutter heads the 
same dissimilarity prevails. They are made to carry from 2 to 5 cutters. 
These are in some cases solid and in others in sections ; in one machine 
placed with the beveled side of the cutter out, or next to the work, and in 
another in the opposite positions; sometimes straight and frequently with 
an edge forming a quarter of a circle, and all these different classes at 
work on the same kind of wood and under like conditions. 

It is not the province of this work, however, to find fault with the ma- 
chinery makers, or to make invidious comparisons. There are many 
very excellent machines manufactured from which to make a selection. 
They will all do good work if properly handled and cared for, and the 
matter of choice resolves itself into the predilections or prejudices of the 
operator. 



BEARINGS. 

The bearings of a planer require more attention than those of almost 
any other machine in use. The very high rate of speed at which the 
spindles are necessarily run, the sudden and severe strains they often re- 
ceive, and the fine dust which collects upon every part, absorbing the 
lubricants and impeding their free operation renders it vitaUy important 
that constant care should be exercised to keep them in proper order, that 
they may run without heating and produce smooth work. 

Spindles should be made of rolled or cast steel, cut from the bars and 
properly shaped in the lathe, but should never be put into the fire. Steel 
is superior for this purpose in many important particulars, though until 
quite recently the latter was almost exclusively used. The torsional 
strength of steel is 75 per cent, greater than iron, and its cohesive strength 
nearly 140 per cent, greater. 

Never pour hot babbitt-metal on an arbor if it can be avoided. Turn a 
piece of common shafting up just enough larger than the bearirigto over- 
come the shrinkage of the metal, and use this "templet" instead of the 
shaft, in the manner hereafter described. Brass bearings are best, but 
babbitt-metal is most generally used on account of cheapness and ease 
of replacing. 

It is often the case that when a planing machine is started up, just after 
the cylinder bearings have been newly fitted, that smooth work cannot be 
turned out, while it is just the time when it would naturally be expected 
that the machine was in the best of order; instead, it makes the surface 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 



143 



of the lumber uneven or " wavy,*' as it is termed in planing-millparlance. 
The usual remedy — if remedy it may be called — is to let them "wear 
down," operators seemingly entertaining the impression that they will be 
all right after a few days 1 Avear. This practice is decidedly erroneous, and 
results from an improper method of moulding the cylinder bearings. 

Both sections of a bearing should be poured at one operation, and not 
at two as is frequently done. The cylinder should be made parallel with 
the bed of the machine by placing two pieces of brass of equal thickness 
under it, and then raising or lowering it until the proper amount of space 
is left between the shaft and shell to be filled with metal. When this has 
been done satisfactorily., fill what space remains between the end of the 
cylinder and the shell with putty or clay, that there may be no outlet for 
the metal, and put on the proper amount of packing, which should be of 
heavy brown drawing paper as it is easily removed as the bearings wear, 
and it becomes necessaiyto take up the lost motion. This should be fitted 
close to the shaft, as shown in the accompanying engraving, leaving a 




moderate sized hole in the middle upon each side of the shaft for the 
metal to pass through, and a vent hole at each end for the escape of air 
and the gas which will be generated by the heated metal. After this is 
done put on the upper section of the shell and secure it firmly by means 
of screws or bolts : then fill up the space at the ends tightly with putty, 
except at the top, where leave a goodly sized vent hole. This latter is an 
important safeguard and should never be omitted, as without it there is 
considerable danger of a blow-up which is liable to result disastrously 
both to the bearing and the mechanic who is attempting to make it. 

When the bearing has been carefully prepared in the manner above 
described, examine it carefully and see that there is nothing to interfere 
with the successful completion of the work. The next step is to melt the 
metal, an operation which though apparently simple, requires some 
judgment and experience. The most important direction to be observed 
is not to over-heat it. A good rule for testing the heat of metal is to in- 



144 PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 

sertinit, as it is melting, a dry pine stick; -when it will cause this to 
smoke it is abundantly hot, and in warm weather and with large holes 
for the metal to pass into the mold, even hotter than is necessary. It is 
a good plan to heat the cap a little before screwing it on, as the heat will 
be imparted to the shaft and lower portion of bearing thus preventing 
the babbitt metal from setting too quickly. Always pour the metal as 
rapidly as possible, but do not hurry ; when once started, keep a steady 
stream running until the shell is filled. Let the bearing cool a little after 
pouring ; then take off the cap, which may be easily done by inserting a 
cold chisel between it and the lower section to break off the gates, which 
will yield readily if the metal is what it should be, and next proceed to 
fit up the bearing, which portion of the work is the most important of 
all, the whole success of the operation depending upon its being properly 
performed. 

Provide some red lead mixed with oil and a half-round scraper, which 
may be made if desired from an old half- round file ground from the flat 
side. Put a thin coating of the lead on the upper portion of the shaft as 
it lays in the bearing and turn it around a few times ; when it is raised 
out of the bearing the red lead will show where the shaft rests. This will 
be found almost invariably to be upon the sides of bearing on account of 
the shrinkage of the metal, and will seldom be found to touch the bot- 
tom. Wherever the red lead appears, remove carefully with the scraper 
a small portion of the metal. The lower part of the bearing should be 
perfectly fitted before the other half is commenced. When that is com- 
pleted, screw on the cap and maniptilate the upper part in the same man- 
ner as the lower. After both sections are fitted perfectly, clean the shaft 
and bearings of all chips and dust, oil with good sperm oil, and screw 
down the cap firmly upon the packing, leaving the shaft loose enough to 
turn freely, but not so loose as to jar. 

The metal for the class of bearings which we have now under consid- 
eration, should be of the very best quality, and is perhaps best obtained 
from some reliable manufacturer of wood-working machines, by stating 
for what purpose it is to be used. For shafting and machinery which 
runs at a low rate of speed, a mixture of one part of antimony and five 
parts of pure lead will answer well, and is quite easily made. To mix it 
properly it should be brought to a red heat and thoroughly stirred up 
from the bottom of the crucible that the ingredients may be well united. 

In moulding vertical bearings like those for side cutting spindles, two 
more gates or openings should be made through the packing on each 
side of the shaft, a trifle smaller than for horizonal bearings where only 
two are used. Pour from the top or upper end of the cap, and look well 
to the vent holes. In placing the packing, cover a portion of the paper 
rests upon the iron with glue, being careful not to place any where the 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 145 

hot metal will come in contact with it, as this keeps the packing in its 
proper position while adjusting the cap, and will readily leave the iron 
when it is necessary to remove it. It is a good plan to cover the shaft 
with thin paper, as this will prevent the metal from cooling, and will 
leave it with a much smoother surface than when it is molded upon the 
bare iron. 



LUBRICANTS FOR SHAFTING AND JOURNALS. 

Use good lard or machine oil to lubricate shafting. The bearings should 
be provided with well regulated glass self-oilers. Never use a self-oiling 
box that feeds from the bottom by wicks or capillary attraction; they 
cannot be trusted. No good workman should trust what he cannot see. 

The common practice of "squirting" the oil from a can is a bad plan 
and very wasteful. Generally where one quart is really used in this man- 
ner five are wasted; and thus mill owners are often induced to buy 
cheap oil under the impression that it lasts just as long as the best, as it 
certainlv does when an operator thinks he must use just so much and 
apply it just so often no matter what the quality may be. For the jour^ 
nals of high speed machinery only the best lard or sperm oil should be 
used, and it should always be fed from an adjustible glass oiler placed on 
the top of the cap in plain sight. With this arrangement the writer has 
seen 24-inch machines with S-inch journals run steadily for 10 hours, as 
a test, with only a teaspoonful of sperm oil to each journal, and at the 
end of that time the spindles were as cool as if they had run only half an 
hour. However incredible this may seem to those who are in the habit 
of applying more than that every 15 or 20 minutes, it is a fact that can be 
readily substantiated. 



GRINDING AND SETTING CUTTERS. 

This is one of the most important features in the successful operation 
of the planing-mill. The method of grinding cutters most commonly 
practiced is a poor one, resulting not only in a loss of time, but of cutters 
as well. This plan is illustrated in Fig. 1 of the accompanying diagrams, and 




consists in grinding a single level upon the edge of the cutter, sometimes 
very short, especially if the grinding apparatus works slowly. When a 
cutter, ground in this manner, has been sharpened a few times with a file 



146 PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 

a rounding edge is produced, unless a good deal of time and care is used 
in performing the operation of filing, and the wood is thus pounded or 
bruised off instead of being cut. Anyone accustomed to operating planing 
machinery can tell instantly by the sound a machine makes whether the 
cutters are cutting or pounding the wood. Fig . 2 shows the proper shape 
for planing knives. The short or filing bevel is the same as in Fig. 1 and 
is just as strong and no more liable to spring or fracture. By grinding 
the second bevel, the iron isrremoved, thereby rendering it an easy matter 
to keep the edge filed and sharpened; it also enables the operator to keep 
a smooth edge upon them, an edge made by the grindstone being unfit 
for\:se until the roughness has been removed by whetting. The best 
machine for grinding planer knives is an emery wheel, about 24 to 30 
inches in diameter, and 2 inches thick, of a coarse grade, arranged with 
an automatic carriage for holding them. Such a machine well made and 
kept in good repair, will perform its work very rapidly and accurately. 

After the knives have been ground they must, if the cylinder is to run 
steadily, be properly balanced. This can be done easily and quickly by- 
using a pair of balances and grinding from the back, between the bolt 




Fig. 3. 
slots of the heaviest cutter. If the cylinder is rectangular, i. e,. with an 
even number of cutters, it is only necessary to have each cutter of the 
same weight as the opposite one, but if the cylinder is triangular, they 
must all be of the same weight. In balancing long knives, care should 
be taken to remove as nearly the same amount from each bolt slot as 
possible, that one end may not be heavier than the other, for should this 
be the case, the cylinder could never be made to run steadily, but would 
have a jarring motion, producing a bad effect upon the work and bearings, 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 



147 



One of the most important points to be noticed in connection with this 
subject is the angle at which the cutters stand to the surface being oper- 
ated upon, and herein lies the whole secret of a planing m achine perform- 




Fig. 4. 
ing it3 work without tearing or slurring the surface of the board. This 
is a matter with which operators should be better acquainted than the 
makers of the machines, as they have an opportunity of observing the 
effect cf cutters at different angles and upon various kinds of wood, while 
the builder has not, but muct make his designs more from theoretical 
deductions than from practical erperience. 

It seems to have been the aim cf most builders to get as low or acute an 
angle on as thin an edge for the cutters as possible. Now what is really 



/X60 c 




Fig. 5. 
wanted is a sharp edge, and any mechanic knows that it is well nigh im- 
impossible to keep a thin edge sharp ; as, if it i3 thin, it must necessarily 
be of a low temper to avoid the danger of breaking. On the other hand 



148 PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 

the more obtuse the angle and the thicker the edge to a certain degree, 
the higher the temper of the metal may be, and the longer it will retain 
its sharpness. That a given amount of wood can be removed with less 
power by use of a thin knife than a thick one is evident, but there are 
cases where the power consumed becomes a secondary consideration and 
the quality of the work turned out the first. 

For planing white pine and soft woods generally the angle shown in 
Fig. 3, is suitable. For partly soft and partly hardwood, that represented 
in Fig. 4 should be used. For hardwood exclusively, such as cherry, wal- 




Fig. 6. 
nut, oak, etc., the angle in Fig. 5 is best, while, for the very hardest var- 
ieties, such as boxwood, rosewood, ebony and similar woods, the angle 
should be high, as shown in Fig. 6. In some cases Ave even find them 
standing upon a radial line with the center of the cylinder, in such ma- 
chines for instance, as those for making wave-mouldings. 



Fig. 7. 

Where knive3 stand at an angle suitable for soft woods, and it is de- 
sired to plane hard or cross-grained lumber, very good results may be ob- 
tained by grinding a slight bevel upon the face of the cutter, as seen at 
Fig. 7, which is in fact changing the cutting angle. 

For determining the proper shape of moulding cutters the following 
rule will be found useful. In the accompanying figure A represents the 
moulding ; through it at any convenient points draw the lines a c d e etc., 
at the same angle to the base that the cutter stands to the bed of the ma- 
chine, which in this case we will assume to be 60°, At the points of inter- 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 



149 



section of these lines with the outline of the moulding draw the ordinates 
a' 6' c 1 <P etc., of any length and perpendicular to E F. At any convenient 
distance above A draw the ground line C D parallel with E F. Extend 
each of the ordinates a distance above the line C D equal to the length 
of each corresponding diagonal line on the moulding, so that 6' 1' will just 
equal a 1 ; c' 2' will equal c 2, and so on. Through the points 1', 2', 3' 
etc., thus produced, draw a line connecting them, which will be the cor- 
rect form of the cutter B. Great care must be taken to balance the cut- 




a cde fg 



ters perfectly that no jar may be produced to cause uneven work. The 
best material for cutters is iron overlaid with steel. Saw blades of 8- 
gauge and even less are often used with good success for light work, but 
are not solid enough for anything heavy. 



ISO 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY, 



A MODEL PLANING MILL. 

In connection with this subject are presented full details of the con- 
struction and arrangement of what is considered a model planing-mill, 
designed and built during the season 
of 1881, by A. O. Gardner for Mr. A. S. 
Meriam, of Quincy, HI. 

This mill was constructed with great 
care to lessen the expense of handling 
the lumber, and it is confidently believ- 
ed that the end has been attained about 
as nearly as is possible, and it can 
be presented as in some respects a 
"model." The lumber is backed up to 
the door and taken from the wagon 
directly into the machines by one man, 
while the one that receives it reloads it 
on the opposite side of the mill, thus 
expending only a trifle more time and 
labor than is necessary to unload and 
load it again. The arrangement of the 
machinery has been also studied very 
closely, the sidingmachine and re-sawer 
feeding in opposite directions, as also 
the rip-saw and moulding machine. 
The picket header beingl ocated between 
the moulder and siding machine will 
receive the pickets from either, as dress- 
ed, without extra handling. It is in- 
tended, when required, to place an up- 
right, or band, resawing machine in the 
between the 




surfacer and flooring 
machine. Great care 
has also been taken to 
guard against disaster 
by fire, all the roofs 
being coated with a 
fire-proof mixture of 
lime and salt, and all 
the woodwork in boil- 
er and engine-room being saturated with the. same, while steam pipes 
lead from tho boiler to the shaving vault, which can be flooded at an 



PLANING MILL MACHINERY. 



IS! 



Instant's notice with live steam, one o 
fire that is known. The pump is 
plentifully supplied with hose, and 
is capable of forcing a stream of 
water over the whole roof surface. 

The following arereferences.to plan 
of mill : A— 26-inch 4-knife surface 
planer, 5,000 revolutions per minute, 
with capacity of 40,000 feet 1-inch 
boards in 10 hours. B — 14-inch floor- 
ing machine; speed. 5,000 revolu- 
tions ; capacity, 20,000 feet of 6-inch 
strips in 10 hours. C — Circular re- 
sawing machine; speed, 2,000; capa- 
city, 20,000 feet of 6-inch strips. D— 
8-inch double cylinder planer and 
matcher; speed, 5,000; capacity, 20,- 
0G0 feet of 6-inch strips in 10 hours. 
E— Picket header ; capacity, 6,000 flat 
or 4,000 square pickets in 10 hours. 
F— Bench rip-saw. G— 7 inch mould- 
ingmachine. H — Gang edger; speed, 
3,200 ; capacity, 30,000 to 40,000 feet 
in 10 hours ; («) Shows location of line 
shaft, which is in the basement, and 
is of wrought iron, hot finished, 3 in. 
in diameter, fitted with perfect self- 
oiling boxes and patent wrought ircn 
rim pulleys, and hung on posts, and 
runs at a speed of £00 
revolutions per min- 
ute ; (6) shows a solid 
flag stone coping 1C 
inches thick, the foun- 
dation of the engine ; 
(f) fly-wheel of engine, ' 
100 inches in diameter 
and 16-inch face, 
weighing 2,200 
pounds ; (e) line of suc- 
tion pipe of exhaust 
fan ; (/) door to shav- 



f the most effective agents to quench 




162 PLANING MILL MACHINERY 

ing vault, the arrows showing the course of the shavings from the vault 
to the furnace of boiler ; {g) exhaust fan, 40 inches in diameter and 18 
inches wide, running 1,150 per minute ; (/>) pump supplying tank and 
boiler. The tank (not designated on plan) is horizontal, of boiler iron, 
and is located directly over the engine, at sufficient altitude to afford 
pressure enough for washing out the boiler ; dimensions, 44 inches diam- 
eter, 12 feet long. The boiler is a horizontal tubular, 48 inches diameter 
and. 12 feet long and contains 51 tubes 3 inches in diameter, and is fed by 
an inspirator, no heater or boiler pump being used. The engine is 12-inch 
cylinder with 18-inch stroke,, with a lap valve cutting off at % stroke and 
makes 140 turns per minute. 

The mill building is very cheaply made, being a balloon frame. In 
size, including the platform upon which the gang edger stands, it is 20 
feet by 64 feet. There were used in its construction, 52 perches of stone, 
3 pieces 8x8 inches 12 feet long, 7 pieces 8x8 inches 16 feet long, 1 piece 
8x8 inches 20 feet long, and 3 pieces 8x8 inches 24 feet long, 52 lower 
joists 2x12 inches 20 feet long, 25 upper joists 2x8 inches 20 feet long, 45 
studding 4x4 inches 14 feet long, 16 pieces for plates 2x4 inches 16 feet 
long, 34 rafters 2x6 inches 14 feet long, 35 pieces 2x4 inches 16 feet long 
for braces and girts for nailing siding; 2,500 feet stock boards (siding), 2,- 
600 lineal feet battens, 1,800 feet roof sheathing, 16,500 shingles, 3,000 
feet 2x8s dressed and jointed for floor, 1,000 feet flooring for doors, 9 pairs 
glazed 0x12 sash (12 lights each with frames), and 250 feet % in. finishing 
lumber. In the construction of the boiler and engine room were used 14 
perches of stone, 30,000 brick, 4 pieces 8x8 inches 20 feet long, 19 pieces 2x6 
inches 20 feet long, 1 piece 4xA inches 20 feet long, 750 feet sheathing, 7,- 
000 shingles, 250 feet flooring, 12 pieces 2x8 inches 16 feet long for frames, 
and 9 pairs 9x12 glazed sash, 4 pairs 8-inch strap hinges, 1 sheet boiler 
iron 26x48 inches, SO pounds bar iron and 6 bolts )£x9 inches for door and 
slides to shaving vault. The engine foundation required 3 perches of 
rough rock besides the cut stone coping, shown in the diagram, and 12 
anchor bolts 1-inch in diameter and 4 feet long. In the boiler setting were 
used 4 perches of stone, 9,000 common brick, 300 fire brick, 4 anchor bolts 
15 feet long, 2 anchor bolts 9 feet long, 5 anchor bolts 8 feet long, 6 anchor 
bolts 3 feet long, and 6 anchor bolts 2 feet long. The chimney is of No. 
15 iron 40 feet high, stayed by 4 lines each 50 feet long. The belting re- 
quired is as follows : 38 feet of 14-inch, double, 100 feet 7-inch single, 100 
feet 6-inch, 70 feet 4^ -inch, 100 feet 4-inch, 100 feet 3-inch, 30 feet 10-inch, 
and 50 feet 2-inch. 

The method of belting from the line shaft up through the floor, as in 
this mill, is to be commended, as effectually obviating all annoyance and 
danger from over-head belting. 



MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 153 



LAWS OF MECHANICS' LIENS. 



Every state has its own laws governing mechanics' liens, and they differ 
widely with the different localities. In the pages which follow is given a 
digest of the laws of the states in which this book will circulate most gen- 
erally. There is no collection of these laws in existence that the writer is 
aware of. The digests — so-called — occasionally to be found in collections 
of miscellaneous information are so meager and incomplete as to be of 
no practical value, and seem to have been written merely as an attractive 
title to an advertisement. We have attempted to give the full meaning of 
the law as it refers to the primary action necessary to secure a hen, but 
not the full process necessary on either side, as whenever suit is actually 
begun legal aid will be necessary in its prosecution. It is intended, how- 
ever, to show what is the basis of a lien and the preliminary steps neces- 
sary to secure its advantages. 

With the law of each state is given the title and date of the Bevised 
Statutes or Compiled Laws from which it is taken. Any changes in legis- 
lation made since the dates given have been incorporated with the digests, 
so they may be taken as representing the condition of the law at this date 
—October, 1881. Beyond the open ng clause defining the application of 
the statute, merely the meaning of the law is given. 



NEBRASKA. 
Compiled Statutes of 1881. Page 343. 

Any persons who shall perform any labor or furnish any material, or 
machinery or fixtures for the erection, repairing or removal of any house, 
mill, manufactory, or building or appurtenance, by virtue of a contract 
expressed or implied with the owner thereof, or his agents, shall have a 
hen to secure payment of the same upon such house, mill, manufactory, 
building or appurtenance, and the lot of land upon which the same shall 
stand. 

Any person furnishing labor or material as above to any contractor or 
sub-contractor, who shall wish to obtain a lien upon any of the structures 
mentioned above, may file a sworn statement of the amount due him or 
them from such contractor or sub-contractor, together with a description 



154 MECHANICS' LIEtf LAWS. 

of the land upon which the same were done or used, within 60 days from 
the rendering of such service, with the clerk of the county in which the 
land is situated, and, if the contractor does not pay him, he shall have a 
lien for the amount due on such let or lots and the improvements thereon, 
from the same time and in the same manner as the original contractor. 

To secure a lien as above the person furnishing labor or material shall 
file a sworn itemized statement of the work done or materials furnished 
within four months from the time of rendering the service, and it shall 
operate as a lien for two years from the rendering of such service. 

If a promissory note has been taken, a lien may be obtained by filing 
the same in the office of the county clerk with a sworn statement that the 
sum for which the note was given was due for service rendered as above. 

Judgement may be obtained on a lien by civil action, and when suit is 
brought within the specified two years the lien shall continue until judg- 
ment is obtained. 

Suspended work may be carried forward by the laborers, etc., engaged 
in the same, sufficiently to prevent the structure from going to waste. 

If property cannot be sold because of defective title, or non-residence 
the owner, it shall be leased for the benefit of lien holders. 

Persons rendering service as above on any railroad, canal or similar 
work shall have a lien upon the entire improvements of the company or 
corporation, including their right of way. 



MISSOURI. 
From Revised Statutes of 1879. Page 533. 

Every mechanic or other person who fhall perform any labor upon any 
materials, fixtures or machinery for any building, erection or improve- 
ments upon land, or for repairing the same, by virtue of any contract 
with the owner thereof, or his agent, trustee, or contractor, upon comply- 
ing with the provisions of the statute, shall have, for his work done or 
materials, etc., furnished a hen upon such building, etc., and upon the 
land belonging to such owner on which the same are situated to the ex- 
tent of one acre, or if in a village or city, upon the lot or land on which 
the building, etc., is situated. A building erected on leased lots or land 
shall be held for the debt contracted in erecting the same, and also the 
lease hold term for such lots or land. 

Every original contractor within six months, every journeyman and 
day laborer within SO days, and every other person within four months 
after the indebtedness shall have accrued, shall file with the clerk of the 
circuit court a full statement of the demand due him, with a full descrip- 
tion of the property upon which the lien is to apply, which certified state- 
ment shall be a lien upon such property. Such lien shall take precedence 



MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 155 

over all subsequent encumbrances. All actions shall be commenced 
within 90 days after filing the lien. 

Ten days before the filing of such lien, notice of the same shall be given 
to the persons against whom the claim is brought. There shall be no 
preference among holders of liens for work done or material furnished as 
above. 

Liens against a railroad shall be filed within 90 days alter the comple- 
tion of the work, and shall be on all the improvements and equipments 
of the railroad and on the right of way. 



KANSAS. 
Compiled Laws of 1881. Page 688. 

Any mechanic or other person who shall, under contract with the owner 
of any piece of land, his agent or trustee, or under contract with the hus- 
band or wife of such owner, perform labor or furnish material for erect- 
ing, altering or repairing any building or the appurtenances of any build- 
ing, cr any erection or improvement, or shall furnish or perform labor in 
putting up any fixtures, machinery or attachment in or to any such build- 
ing, etc., or plant and grow any trees, vines, plants or hedge, or build a 
stone fence, or build or furnish material for a fence on any tract of land, 
shall have a lien upon such buildings, etc., and upon the whole tract of 
land, for the amount due him for such work done or material furnished. 
Such liens shall have precedence of all subsequent encumbrances. 

To obtain a lien, as above, a material-man or sub-contractor shall file a 
statement of the amount due, and the property upon which the work was 
done or material furnished, with the clerk of the district court, and a 
copy furnished to the owner of the premises within 60 days after the com- 
pletion of the work or furnishing the materials, etc. An original con- 
tractor shall file the required statement, as above, within four months 
from the time of completion, etc. 

Action to enforce such lien must be brought in the district court of the 
county, within one year after completion of such work, etc., and if there 
are several lien-holders they shall all be made parties to the action, and 
if their claims cannot be paid in full, payment shall be made pro rata. 



ARKANSAS. 

From Compiled Laws of 1874. Page 337. 

Every mechanic, builder, artisan, laborer or other person, including 

contractors, sub-contractors and material-furnishers, who shall perform 

any labor upon, or furnish any materials, machinery or fixtures for, any 

building, erection or other improvement upon land, by virtue of any con- 



156 MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 

tract, express or implied, with the owner thereof, or his agent, trustee, 
contractor or sub-contractor, shall have for his work done, or materials, 
etc., furnished, alien upon such building, etc., and upon the land be- 
longing to its owner, and upon which it stands. 

A sub-cntractor to obtain such lien shall, before he commences work, 
or furnishes materials, give notice to the owner of his intention, and the 
probable value of the work, etc., he will do. If after his contract is car- 
ried out he shall settle with the contractor in writing, and the settlement 
being certified by the contractor to be correct, the sub-contractor shall 
present it to the owner, etc., and within 60 days from the time his contract 
shall have been completed, the sub-contractor shall file with the clerk of 
the circuit court a copy of the settlement between him and the contractor; 
it shall be a lien upon the building, erection or improvement for which 
the things were furnished or the labor done. Then the employer shall 
become the surety of the contractor to the sub-contractor for the amount 
due for such service rendered. 

Every person, except a sub-contractor, who wishes to avail himself of 
the advantages of lien shall within 90 days after the service has been ren- 
dered, file with the clerk of the circuit court a full statement of the amount 
due him, and a correct description of the property to be charged with 
said lien. 

Liens shall be paid pro rata, except that the lien of a sub-contractor 
shall be paid before that of a contractor. Land not exceeding two acres 
lying conveniently around said building shall be subject to the above lien. 
The sale of property charged with a lien shall not affect previous encum- 
brances duly recorded, or of which the lien holders had due notice. No 
lien shall be for a greater amount than that stipulated in the original 
contract. 



MINNESOTA. 
From Bevision of 1878. Page 871. 

Whoever performs labor or furnishes materials or machinery for erect- 
ing, constructing, altering or repairing any house, mill, manufactory or 
other building or appurtenance, or for constructing, altering or repairing 
any boat, vessel or other water craft, by virtue of contract with the owner 
or agent thereof, shall have a lien to secure payment of the same upon 
such building, vessel, etc., together with the interest of the person own- 
ing such building to the land upon which it is situated, not exceeding 40 
acres, and, if in a city, town or village plat, upon the lot upon which it is 
erected, not to exceed one acre. 

"Upon entering iuto a contract, to do labor or furnish materials, for 
which a lien might accrue, if the contractor shall enter into a bond with 



MECHANICS' LIEN XAWS. 



the owner guaranteeing the payment of all persons who may do work, 
etc., under the contract, said bond to be filed according to law, no lien 
shall attach in favor of the persons mentioned above. 

To obtain such lie .1 the person enti led shall, within 60 days of the time 
of performing the service, file in the office of the regi ter of deeds a f n',1 
sta' ement of the account between himself and the parson from whom the 
account is due, and such cert fied statement sIieII act as alien for one 
year from the time of rende ing the . ervice. When work is suspended 
without the consent of laborers and material men, etc., they may proce d 
w th it at their own cost, in ac ordanco with the original contract, as far 
as may be necessary to prevent the work alrea "y done from goingto waste. 

Where lands or building cannot be sold, they may be leased to satisfy 
lien-holders. In case of settlement of business, the liens of employes for 
wages, not to exceed $200, shall have preference. 



IOWA. 
From McLaiiCs Annotated Statute*. Revision of 1880. Page 596. 

Every mechanic or other person who shall perform any labor on, or 
furnish any materials, machinery, or fixtures for, any building, erection 
or other improvement upon land (including those engaged in the con- 
struction or repair of any work of internal improvement) by virtue of 
any contract with the owner, his agent, trustee, contractor, or sub-con- 
tractor shall have a lien upon such buildings, etc., and upon the land be- 
longing to such owner upon which they may be situated, to secure pay- 
ment for such labor done, or materials, etc., furnished. The entire land 
is subject to the above liens to the full extent of the owner's interest 
therein when such service was rendered for his benefit. When the owner 
of the building has only a lease-hold interest in the land, the forfeiture 
of such interest shall not impair the lien on the building, which may be 
sold to satisfy the same, and removed 30 days after the sale. When such 
service shall have been rendered in the construction, repair or equipment 
of any railroad, canal, viaduct, or other similar improvement, the lien 
shall extend to the erection, excavations, embankments, bridges, road- 
bed, and all lands upon which ihey may be situated, except the right of 
way, and these shall constitute the building, erection, or improvement 
mentioned in the statute. 

Every person wishing to obtain such lien shall file with the clerk of the 
district court of the county in which the building, etc., may be situated a 
just and true statement of the amount due him after allowing all credits, 
stating the time when such service was rendered, and when completed, 
and containing a correct description of the property to be charged with 
the lien, and verified by affidavit. 



158 MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 

Such statement must be filed by a principal contractor within 90 days, 
and by a sub-contractor within 30 days from the completion of the con- 
tract. Where the claim is upon a railroad, it may be filed within 60 days 
after the last day of the month, in which the service was rendered. A 
failure to file the claim within the periods mentioned, shall not defeat 
the lien, except where it may concern purchasers and encumbrancers in 
good faith without notice, whose rights accrued after the expiration of 
the required period and before the claim was filed. 

To preserve his lien as against the owner, and to prevent payments by 
the latter to the principal contractor, or to intermediate sub-contractors, 
the sub-contractor must, within the period mentioned in the preceding 
clause, serve a written notice, of the filing of such claim, on the owner, 
etc. When filed and served after the expiration of the 30 days, the lien 
shall be enforced only to the extent of the balance due from the owner to 
the principal contractor, at the time of such service. 

T..e m?rl amc's 1 en ] rov.ded for in ihis s'atute shall tike prior ty as 
fol ows: First. — As betw en themselves, in the order of fling the st te- 
me".t. Secnd. They s. all take pr ority to all .. ar^ishments ma e upon 
the owne for the cont' aot i ebt. Third. — T..ey shall have priority to all 
other subsequent 1 e: s and e cumbrances, except as before % iven, when 
the sta eme.-tisfile ' aih-r the spe ified time. Fourth. — If th re were pre- 
vious encumbrances upon the land such claims s .all ha. e preference as 
to the value <-f the land, while the lien pro ided for in this st-tule shall 
havj prefe-ence as to the value of the improvement, if it be a new on°. If 
the seiw.ee rendere I be izx rep dr^. the prior encumbrance has preference 
as *o the value of the property be Cere he re i airs were legun, and the lien 
h-ts preference as to the value of the re; airs as compared to the previous 
value of the property. Where the improvement is a s parage build ng 
that < an be removed, it may be sold by order of court. If the premises 
must be sold as a whole, the court will adjust the several claims as above. 

Upon the written demand of the owner, etc., the person claiming the 
hen shall commence suit, to enforce such lien, in the district or circuit 
court, within £0 days thereafter. 

Definitions and De-isio?is. — All persons furnishing materials and doing 
work as above, except those that have contracts directly with the owner, 
proprietor, agent or trustee, shall be considered sub-contractors. The 
contract need not be express, or in writing. A husband cannot act in re- 
gard to his wife's property without her consent. Alien attaches to the 
building, and not to the material furnished. A person furnishing ma- 
terial'under contract has a lien f r a 1 th • ma erial furnished, whether 
u ed or not. A lab^r r inrlovel by a sub-contractor, when th > 1-ttter 
has been paid in full by the contractor, cannot enforce a den against the 
owner, 



MECHANICS 1 LIEN LAWS. 159 

MICHIGAN. 
From Public Acts of 1879. 

Every person who shall, in pursuance of a contract, express or implied 
— existing between himself, as contractor, and the owner, part owner, 
lessee, or person holding under any land contract or otherwise, any in- 
terest in real estate, - build, alter, improve, repair, erect, beautify or orna- 
ment, or who shall furnish any labor or materials for such purpose in or 
for any house, building, machinery, wharf or other structure, and every 
person wno shall, as sub-contractor, laborer or material-man, perform or 
furnish to any such original or principal contractor, any labor or mater- 
ials in carrying forward such contract, shall have a hen therefor upon 
such house, or other structure, ar.d its appurtenances, and also upon the 
entire interest of such owner, etc.. in the lot or piece of land upon which 
it may stand, said piece of land not to exceed one quarter-section, or if in 
an incorporated village or city, not to exceed the lot or lots upon which 
it may stand. The liability of the holder of the house or lands shall not 
exceed his interest in the same at the time xhe contract was made, and 
the total amount of such hens shall not ex*ceed the amount due, or to be- 
come due on such contract. 

A lien holds if the service was performed upon the lands of a married 
woman by contract with her husband and ivith her consent. 

Such lien shall not attach unless the contractor or otherwise, as the 
case may be, shall file in the office of the register of deeds of the county 
in which the lands, etc., are situated, a written notice, substantially in 
the following form : 

To All Whom it May Concern: Take Notice ! — That I intend to 
claim a lien upon th~ following premises, and the tenements and appur- 
tenances thereon, for labor and materials furnished or to be furnished by 
me, as contractor {or nub-contractor, or laborer, as the case may be) under 
a certain contract existing between as owner (or otherwise;, claim- 
ing an interest in said premises, and as contractor, for (build- 
ing, repairing, prating in machinery or otherwise), which premises are 
described as follows : (Giving the proper real estate description.) 
[Signed], 



Contractor (or as the case may be.) 
A copy of which notice shall be served on the owner. The owner shall 
not, be bound beyond the amount due at the time of filing and serving 
such notice, or which may thereafter become due. 

The party filing such claim, shall, whenever required by the owner, fur- 
nish a statement of work and materials furnished to date and still unpaid, 
and 30 days from completion of contract make affidavit of the amount 



160 MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 

actually due him over and above all credits, and file it in the same man- 
ner as the original claim, together with proof by affidavit of the due ser- 
vice of notice on the owner. 

The several liens upon the same party, under the same contract, shall 
be deemed simultaneous mortgages, and shall continue for 60 days and 
no longer after such affidavit is filed, unless proceedings are begun, as 
provided, to enforce them. 

When the owner shall have failed to perform his part of the contract, 
and therefore the other party, without his fault, shall have been pre- 
vented from completely performing his part, he shall be entitled to pay 
for as much as he has done, in proportion to the price stipulated for the 
whole, and the court shall adjust his claim accordingly. When several 
hen-holders have equal rights as between themselves, payment shall be 
made pro rata. 



OHIO. 
From Revised Statutes of 1880. Chapter IV, Vol. 1, Page 825. 

A person who performs labor, or furnishes machinery or material for 
constructing, altering or repairing a boat, vessel or other water craft; or 
for erecting, altering, repairing or removing a house, mill, manufactory 
or other building, appurtenance, fixture, bridge or other structure, under 
contract with owner, authorized agent, executor or administrator, shall 
have a lien to secure payment lor same upon such vessel, bridge, etc., or 
upon such structure and upon the interest of owner in lot of land upon 
which it stands or to which it may be removed. 

Such person to obtain such lien, shall, within four months from the 
time such service was rendered or such material furnished, file with the 
Recorder of the county in which such service was performed or material 
furnished an affidavit containing an itemized statement of account between 
himself and the owner; also a copy of the contract, if in writing, if not, 
a statement of verbal agreement; also description of lands on which such 
structure may stand or to which it may be removed. Shall operate as a 
lien from date of first item; and shall stand for two years from date of 
filing ; or, if action is begun within that time, until the final adjudication 
thereof. There shall be no exemption against such lien. 

A person who furnishes labor or materials upon any road, sidewalk, 
sewer, ditch, etc., by virtue of private contract with owner or agent of 
lands abutting, shall have a lien on such lands, to be obtained as above, 
but to stand for but one year. If several persons hold several liens, thus 
obtained, on the same job, they shall have no priority among themselves, 
but payment shall be made pro rata. If, defective title prevents sale of 
lands to satisfy such hen, it shah be leased for benefit of lien-holders. 



MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 161 

Sub-contractors, material men, laborers, etc., may have lien upon pay- 
ments due bead contractors from owner, board or public officer. Such 
hen shall be filed as above, and also with the owner, board or public 
officer. Such claims of laborers, mechanics and material-men shall be 
paid before those of sub-contractors, and those of sub-contractors before 
those of head contractors. If owner or agent refuse to pay such claim the 
holder shall have a hen upon the structure or upon the lands upon which 
it stands : such hen to have precedence over liens of head contractors. 

Definitions, Etc. — The term "owner" includes also the owner of a 
lease-hold. Material must be furnished for the particular structure. 
"When contract is for an entire job at an entire price, no itemized account 
is necessary. 



KENTUCKY. 
Revised Statutes of 1873. Page 620. 

A person who performs labor or furnishes material in the erection, 
altering or repairing of a house, building, or other structure, or for any 
fixture or machinery therein, or for the improvement, in any manner, of 
real estate by contract with, or by the written consent of the owner, shall 
have a hen thereon, and upon the land upon which such improvement 
may have been made, or on any interest such owner has in the same, to 
secure the amount thereof with costs. If the owner claims by executory 
contract, and if, for any cause, such contract shall be set aside, the lien 
shall follow the property into the hands of the person to whom the same 
may come, to the extent only that the actual value of the property may 
be enhanced by the improvements so placed upon it. 

If an evicted owner or claimant shall be entitled to compensation for 
improvement, the rights of the lien holder shall be substituted for those 
of the person so evicted. If improvements are made by contract with a 
lessee, and during the term of the lien, the lessee's interest shall return 
to the owner, and the owner shall refuse to accept such improvement, 
the hen-holder may remove the same, provided it can be done without 
injury to previous improvements. 

If the work is done or materials furnished, not to the owner, but to a 
contractor or sub-contractor notice shall be given to the owner that a lien 
will be claimed. Then it shall be the duty of the owner to with-hold a 
sufficient amount to satisfy the claim. If he shall fail so to do, the prop- 
erty shall be in hen. Provided, that no hen shall exist in favor of such per- 
sons, in case the contractor himself is not entitled to a hen, nor if security 
shall have been taken for the labor performed or materials furnished. 

The claimant within 60 days after the completion of the contract shall 
file with the clerk of the county court a full statement of account and 



162 MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 

description of the property intended to be covered in the hen. Actions 
to inforce such liens shall be brought within six months from the last 
named dates, except in case of the death of the defendant, when a further 
six months shall be allowed. 



INDIANA. 
From Bevised Statutes of 1876. Vol. 2, Page 266. 

Persons performing labor or furnishing materials for the construction 
or repair of any building, may have a lien, separately or jointly, upon the 
building which they may have constructed or repaired, and on the inter- 
est of the owner in the lot or land on which it stands, to the extent of the 
value of the labor done, or materials furnished or for both. 

The provisions of this act shall extend to work done on any new build- 
ing ; and to a contract entered into with the owner of any building for re- 
pairs, provided such are furnished with the consent of the owner of the 
land on which the building may be situated, but not to any contract made 
to the tenant, except only to the extent of his interest. 

Persons wishing to obtain a mechanic's lien may give notice in writing 
to the owner of the amount of his claim, and what are the services for 
which his employer is indebted to him. The owner shall be liable for 
such claim, not to exceed the amount due or to become due from him to 
the employer, which claim may be recovered in an action whenever an 
amount equal to such claim over other claims having priority shall be 
due from such owner to the employer ; and any sub-contractor by giving 
notice as above of the amount of labor or materials he has engaged to 
furnish, shall have the same claim against the owner for service rendered 
after the notice is given, as is given above to mechanics, etc. Whenever 
action is brought against an owner, all sub-contractors, journeymen and 
laborers who have given due notice, as required, may become parties to 
such action, and, upon judgment, the amount collected shall be divided 
pro rata. 

The person wishing to obtain such lien shall, also, file in the recorder's 
office, within 60 days after completion, whether his claim be due or not, 
notice of his intention to hold a lien, setting forth the amount claimed, 
and time when labor, etc., began to be furnished, and shall have pre- 
cedence over all subsequent claims except other mechanic's and material- 
men's liens. 

Any person having such lien may enforce it in the circuit court or court 
of common pleas of the county in which the service was rendered, within 
one year from the completion of the work or expiration of credit if given. 
The court rendering judgment shall order the sale to be made, such 



MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 



sale to be -without prejudice to the rights of any prior encumbrancer, 
owner or other persons not parties to the action. 

All boats, vessels and water-craft of every description, found in waters 
of this state, including wharf-boats and floating warehouses, which are 
liable to be removed from place to place, are liable : 1 . — For all debts con- 
tracted either within or without the state. 2. — For all damages arising 
from neglect of contract entered into in connection with the business of 
such boat, etc. 3. — For all injuries done to persons and property by such 
boat, etc., or by owners, officers or crew done in connection with the 
business of the same. Claims, if growing out of the above causes, are 
liens upon the boat, etc. Among such liens, mariners' and boatmen's 
wages shall be preferred. (Act of March 29, 1879.) 

In case of settlement by process of law of the business of any company, 
corporation, person or persons, debts owing to laborers or employes shall 
have preference to the extent of $50 for labor performed within six 
months next preceding such seizure, or if not enough to satisfy, they 
shall be paid pro rata. 

Decisions, Etc. — The construction of a pavement abutting on a lot is not 
embraced in the mechanics' lien law. To make the property of a married 
woman subject to the mechanic's hen law, she must have done what 
would have made her personally liable as an unmarried woman. A prior 
mortgage as also dower interest is equivalent to a mechanics' lien. 

A mechanics' lien can be enforced for work done and materials fur- 
nished in the erecti n of a school house, built by order and contract of a 
trustee. A lien on a boat cannot be lost by delay, if there was no oppor- 
tunity to enforce it. 



WISCONSIN. 
From Revision, of 1878. Page 845. 
Every person who, as principal contractor performs any labor, or fur- 
nishes any materials for the erection, construction, repairs, protection or 
removal of any building, or of any machinery erected or constructed, so 
as to become a part of the freehold upon which it is situated, or of any 
bridge, or in the filling up of any water lot, or in the construction thereon 
of any wharf or permanent erection, or in digging or constructing any 
well or fountain, or in building or repairing any fences upon land, or do- 
ing manual labor thereon, shall have a hen thereupon, and upon the in- 
terest of the owner of such building, etc., as above, in the land on which 
the same is situated, or of the person causing such manual labor to be 
done, not exceeding 40 acres, or if within the limits of any incorporated 
city or village, upon the piece of land used, or t'esi ned for use in con- 
nection with such building, etc., not exceeding one acre. Such lien shall 



164 MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 

be prior to any other lien which originates after the work has been begun. 

Every person who, as sub-contractor of a principal contractor, performs 
any work for, or furnishes any material to, a principal contractor, in any 
of the cases mentioned above, shall have a ]ien, if within 30 days after 
rendering such service, he shall give notice in writing to the owner of the 
property to be affected by it, setting forth that he has been employed by 
such principal contractor to furnish and has furnished such work, etc., 
with a statement of the items and the amount due therefor, and that he 
claims a lien ; but the owner shall not be liable only so far as he is in- 
debted to the principal contractor at the time of receiving the notice or 
thereafter ; no sub-contractor of a sub-contractor has a lien. Liens under 
this statute are assignable, if notice is served on the owner within 15 days 
after assignment. The taking of a promissory note, or other evidence of 
indebtedness, shall not discharge the lien unless taken as payment, and 
so specified in the note, or otherwise. 

Such lien shall not exist unless within six months from the date of the 
last charge for rendering such service, a claim for such lien shall be filed 
in the office of the clerk of the circuit court of the county in which it was 
rendered, nor shall an action be maintained unless brought within one 
year from such date. Such claim shall contain a statement of the con- 
tract, or demand upon which it is founded, the name of the person 
against whom it is claimed, the name of the claimant, the last dateof the 
rendering of service, a description of the property affected, a statement of 
the amount claimed and all other material facts. Any person having filed 
such claim may foreclose it in the circuit court, or other court having 
jurisdiction, and all such lien-holders on the same job may be joined as 
plaintiffs. They shall have no priority among themselves, 



ILLINOIS. 
From Revised Statutes, of 18,81. Page 696. 

Any person who shall, as principal contractor, by contract, express or 
implied, with the owner of any lot or piece of land, furnish labor or ma- 
terials, or services as an architect, or superintendent, in building, alteifc 
ing, repairing or ornamenting any house or other building, or appurten- 
ance thereto on such lot, or upon street or alley and connected with such 
building or appurtenance, shall have a lien upon the whole of such tract 
Of land or lot, and upon such house or building, or appurtenance, for the 
amount due him for such labor, material or services ; provided, that the 
pwner shall only be liable to the extent of his interest therein. 

When the contract is expressed, there shall be no lien, if the time stipu- 
lated for the completion of the contract is beyond three years from its 



MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 165 

commencement, or if the date of payment is more than one year from 
its completion. If the contract is implied, no lien shall be had unless the 
contract be completed within one year from its commencement. 

The lien may be enforced, in any court of record of competent jurisdic- 
tion in the county in which the land, or - part of it, may be situated, by 
bill or petition, which shall contain a brief statement of the express dr 
implied contract, the amount due and unpaid, a description of the premi- 
se's, and other material facts. When notice cannot fee served upon the 
owner because he is out of the state, or cannot be found, the claimant 
shall file an affidavit of the fact with the clerk of the court, who shall act 
as provided by statute. All parties who have any legalor equitable right 
to the whole or part of the premises, may become parties to the suit any 
time before the final judgment. There shall be no preference among 
lien-holders under this act. 

Previous encumbrances shall be preferred to the extent of the value of 
the property before the improvement was made, and the lien-holder shall 
have preference to the amount of his contract on the building, or other 
improvement erected, etc. Suit must be brought to enforce such hen ; 
must be brought within six months after the last payment on contract 
shall have become due. 

Every sub-contractor, mechanic, workman or other person, who shall, 
in pursuance of the original contract between the owner and the principal 
contractor, perform any labor, or furnish any materials for the purposes 
mentioned in the preceding part, shall have a lien as in the case of prin- 
cipal contractors, the aggregate of such liens not to exceed the price stipu- 
lated in the original contract, unless it shall appear to the court that 
the owner and principal contractor designed to defraud sub-contractors 
by fixing an unreasonably low price in the contract. Such person wish- 
ing to obtain such lien shall serve a notice, in writing, on the owner, sub- 
stantially in the following form : 

To You are hereby notified that I have been employed by 

to, [here state whether to labor or furnish material, and substantially the 
nature of the contract) upon your {here state the building, and where situ- 
ated, in general terms) ; and that I shall hold the (building, or as the case 
may be), and your interest in the ground liable for the amount that (is, or, 
may become) due me on account thereof. 



Signature. 

This notice, with a copy of the contract, if it can be obtained, shall be 
served within 40 days after payment should have been made. The owner 
may retain money due the contractor to pay such claims, and if there is 
not enough to pay them in full, he shall pay them pro rata. If such 



166 MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 

payment shall not be made within 10 days after the same may become 
due, suit may be brought to enforce it. 



TENNESSEE. 
From the Statutes. Compilation of 1871, Vol. 1, page 1,981. 
There shall be a lien upon any piece of ground upon which improve- 
ments are made by contract with the owner or agent, in favor of the per- 
son or persons doing the work or furnishing the materials on or for the 
same. If the property be mortgaged, and the holder of the mortgage 
shall give his consent to the improvements, the lien shall have priority 
over the mortgage. If the mortgagee fail to object within 10 days after 
receiving notice, his consent shall be implied. A person shall have this 
lien, if at the time he begins to work, or to furnish material, he notifies 
the owner of his intention to rely upon a hen. The lien shall continue 
for one year from the completion of the contract, or until the decision of 
a suit that may be brought within that time. 



WEST VIRGINIA. 
Revised Statutes of 1879, Vol. 2, Page 751. 

Every person doing work or furnishing materials on or for any build- 
ing, by virtue of contract with the owner or his agent, or by agreement 
with the person holding such contract, shall have a lien upon the build- 
ing and the land on which it is situated, not to exceed the contract price. 
Such liens shall have no priority among themselves, but shall be pre- 
ferred to subsequent encumbrances. 

To obtain such a lien, the claimant shall, within 30 days after he ceases 
to labor or furnish material, file with the clerk of the county court a 
sworn statement of the account and a description of the property. If a 
sub-contractor, within the same period, he shall serve notice on the owner 
of the amount of his demand, and that he intends to hold a lien against 
the owner's property. Suit to enforce such lien, must be brought within 
six months of the time of filing such claim, by filing a bill in chancery in 
the circuit court, in which all interested parties shall be made plaintiffs 
or defendants. 

When the owner fails to perform his part of the contract, and the other 
party is therefore prevented from completing his part, the latter shall be 
entitled to compensation for as much as he has performed in proportion 
for the amount stipulated for the whole. Liens against corporations are 
for the same causes, and are enforced in the same manner as above. 



MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 167 

CONNECTICUT. 
From Revision of 1875. Page 359. 

Any person furnishing material or rendering services to an amount ex- 
ceeding $25 in the construction or repair of any building or appurtenance 
may have a lien on such building and on the land on which it stands, 
such liens to take precedence of subsequent encumbrances ; provided, that 
no such lien shall attatch to any estate not owned by the party against 
whom puch claim exists. A person wishing to obtain such lien shall file 
with the town clerk a certificate in writing, describing the premises, the 
amount of the claim and the date of the commencement. 

No person other than the original contractor for the building or a sub- 
contractor, whose contract with such original contractor is in writing, and 
has been assented to, in writing, by the other party to such original con- 
tract, shall be entitled to claim any such lien, unless he shall, Avithin 60 
days from the time he commenced to render the service, give written 
notice to the owner of the building, that he has so commenced to furnish 
materials, or render services, and intends to claim a lien therefor on said 
building. The aggregate of such liens shall not hold to a greater extent 
than the price which the owner agreed to pay for such building and ap- 
purtenances. Sub-contractors are paid prorata, and have priority over 
the principal contractor. No mechanic's lien shall continue in force for 
more than two years, unless suit shall have been brought within that time. 

There is a lien on vessels by virtue of materials furnished or service 
rendered exceeding $20 in amount. Liens for mariners' wages have pre- 
ference. 



VERMONT. 
From Revised Laws of 1880. Paae 407. 
Lien on Buildings : — When a contract is made, written or otherwise, for 
erecting, repairing, moving, or altering a building, o :• for furnishing labor 
or materials therefor, the person proceeding in pursuance of such con- 
tract or agreement shall have a lien to secure the payment of the same 
upon such building, and the lot upon which the same stands. And Mich 
lien sh;:ll continue in force for three months from the time when pay- 
ment becomes due. But no lien shall attach until the person claiming it 
shall file in the town clerk's office of the town where such real estate is sit- 
uated, a writttn memorandum, asserting such claim. Such hen shall also 
apply to a water-wheel or steam engine erected in or near a saw-mill, 
grist-mill or factory, to be used for the purpose of operating the machin- 
ery therein. Within three months from the time of filing such memor- 



168 MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 

andum, if payment is due at that time, and, if not, three months after it 
becomes due, action may be begun thereon, and the said property may 
be attached. 

These provisions shall apply to property held as a homestead. The 
real estate of a married woman may be charged with a lien when she 
assents to the contract. 

Lien on Ships :— A person who performs labor or furnishes materials 
in building, repairing, fitting or furnishing a vessel, shall have a lien on 
the same for his wages or materials, until 8 months after it is completed, 
and may secure the same by an attachment which shall have precedence 
of all other claims. But before such lien shall attach, such person shall 
demand payment of the owner or agent, and if payment of the just 
amount is tendered, the lien shall be discharged. 



MAINE. 
From Revised Statutes of 1871. 

A person who performs labor or furnishes materials in erecting or re- 
pairing any building, by virtue of an express or implied contract, has a 
lien on such building, and whatever interest the owner of the building 
has in the land on which it stands. The claimant must, within 30 days 
after completing the contract, file a full sworn statement of account, with 
a description of the property, with the town clerk. Suit to enforce the 
lien must be begun within 90 days after the same time. 

There is an elaborate lien against vessels to secure payment for work 
done on them or material furnished, but it is too lengthy to give here. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
From the General Laws, Edition of 1878. Page 334. 

Any person who shall perform labor or furnish materials, to the amount 
of $15, or more, for erecting, altering, or repairing a house or other 
building or appurtenances, by virtue of a contract with the owner thereof, 
shall have a lien thereon and on any right of the owner to the land on 
which it stands; such lien to continue for 90 days after the completion of 
the contract, unless payment is previously made, and may be secured by 
an attachment thereon. 

Persons rendering such services to a railroad shall have the same privi- 
leges. Any person rendering service by virtue of a contractwith an agent, 
contractor or sub-contractor of the owner, may have the above lien by 
giving notice to the owner or person having charge of the property, that 
he intends to claim such lien. 



MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 169 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
From the General Statutes, Chapter 150. 

Any person to whom a debt is due for labor performed or material fur- 
nished, and used in the erection, alteration or repair of airy building or 
other structure upon real estate, by virtue of an agreement with, or by 
consent of the owner thereof, or any person having authority from the 
owner, has a lien on the property and lands tor his charges. Unless the 
labor or materials were performed or furnished by contract with the 
owner, he may prevent any lien from attaching, for work or materials not 
already performed or furnished, by giving written notice to the person 
performing the labor or furnishing the materials that he will not be re- 
sponsible for the debt. Anyone having an interest in the property at- 
tached may release the same by giving sufficient bonds. 

Liens are dissolved, unless the claimant, within 30 days af .er ceasing to 
work, files in the registry of deeds for the county or district where the 
property is situated, a true statement of the account, together with a 
description of the property and the owner's name ; and suit to enforce the 
hen must be begun within 90 days after ceasing to work or furnish ma- 
terials. 



NEW YORK. 



The general law relating to the whole state includes railway bridges and 
trestle work, wharves, piers, bulkheads and bridges. 

The law appertaining to all but Erie, New York, Kings, Queens, Onon- 
daga and Rensselaer counties provides for a lien for labor in erecting, 
altering or repairing any house, building or other appurtenances, or who 
shall furnish any materials therefor, which lien shall extend to the house, 
building and appurtenances, and to the extent of the right, title and in- 
terest of the owner of the land on which it is situate. 

But if the improvement be by contract, the property shall not be held 
liable for more than the contract price. 

If any pajnuents are made collusively to evade the lien law, they shall 
not be considered in bar of the provisions of the law. 

To constitute and perfect the lien, a notice thereof must be filed in the 
county clerk's office within 60 days after performance of the labor or final 
furnishing of materials. 

Actions may be brought to enforce hens as follows : In the supreme 
court in any case. In the county court, when amount exceeds $50. In 
justice courts, when amount is less than $200. The limitation of liens is 
one year or until judgment, if proceedings have been instituted within 
one year. Appeals may be taken as in other cases.- 



170 MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 

Liens have priority as per date of filing notice with clerk. And there 
may be a judgment for any deficiency. 

In New York city, the peculiarities are that laborers, cartmen, material- 
men and sub-contractors have precedence over contractors ; and mort- 
gages, exe uted before the performance of any work, shall not be affected 
or impaired by the lien. The notice of lien must be filed within three 
months from the time the work is done or materials furnished. 

In Kings and Queens counties, the provisions are not materially differ- 
ent from the general law. 

In Erie, Onondaga and Kensselaer counties, there is no provision of 
law for the registry or enforcement of liens. 

When the notice of lien shall be given, a bill of particulars verified by 
the oath of the party shall likewise be served with it. 

When the owner or party in interest is not in the state, so that notice 
cannot be personally served, a three weeks' consecutive notice by publi- 
cation in a newspaper will suffice. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 

The lien of mechanics and material-m^n extends to buildings and to 
the ground covered thereby, and as much more ground as may be neces- 
sary for the ordinary and useful purposes of the building, but it does not 
extend to public buildings belonging to a county, nor to school-houses, 
nr r to railway depots, nor to public corporation bui dings used in their 
active operations; but churches are included. 

The owner of the ground must enter in the "Mechanics' Lien Docket" 
in the prothonotaries office, the boundary of the lot he designs to im- 
prove and that becomes notice to all the world, and binds every one. A 
prior mortgage takes precedence of a lien. The lien shall exist for the ben- 
efit of plumbers, paperhangers, gasfitters, and furnishers of machinery for 
coal mines, also to wharves. The interest of a tenant for years is not 
such as will be bound by a mechanic's lien. If a woman owns real estate 
and her husband improves it with her consent, it will be bound by the lien. 

Liens may also be taken for alterations and repairs, where the amount 
thereof is $50 or over. 

There are special acts authorizing liens on leaseholds and fixtures per- 
taining to mines, which relate to several of the mining counties. 

Every person entitled to a lien shall file a notice thereof in the pro- 
thonotaries office of the court of common pleas of the proper county, 
which sh:ill set forth the name of owner, contractor, architect, builder 
and claimant ; also, the amount dne, kind of work done or materials fur- 
nished, time, etc., and full description of building, etc. 



MECHANICS' LIEN LAWS. 171 

If more than one building is embraced in the same contract the lien 
may be apportioned. The hen shall continue for six months from the 
time of finishing the work or furnishing of materials. The proceedings 
in court to enforce the lien shall be by writ of scire facias. 

When notice of the lien is filed with the protbonotary, it is good for five 
years. Where materials are furnished in pursuance of a contract, the 
limitation begins to run from the date of the last act done in pursuance 
of it. A contractor and a sub-contractor cannot file a j oint claim. 

A mechanic is bound to file his claim with certainty sufficient to give 
creditors and purchasers record-notice; and nothing less than certainty 
to a common intent will affect them. 

A copper kettle or boiler in a brew-house is part of the freehold, and 
subject to the hen law; so are burr mill-stones; so is the engine by which 
a s'eani saw-mill is propelled. 

A prior mortgage has precedence of a lien, although given for future 
advances. 



M LOG LIEN LAWS. 



THE LAW OF LOG LIENS. 



MINNESOTA. 

Whoever performs manual labor upon any logs or timber, shall have a 
hen upon such logs or timber to secure the payment of wages agreed to be 
paid for such labor, upon complying with the following requirements : 

Before entering upon the performance of any such labor, the person 
proposing to perform the same shall cause to be filed and recorded in 
the. office of the surveyor general of logs, for the district in which the 
mark of the logs or timber upon which the work is to be done is by law 
required to be recorded, a memorandum in writing of the contract, which 
memorandum shall contain : First — The names of the parties to the con- 
tract. Second — The proposed mark of the logs, etc. Third — Time when 
such labor is to be performed. Fourth — The amount, time and manner 
of payment agreed upon for such service, and shall be signed by both 
parties. 

Action for enforcement of hen shall be brought within six months after 
filing. 



MICHIGAN. 
Any person or persons that may perform any labor or services in fell- 
ing, cutting, hauling, banking, driving, running, rafting or booming any 
logs, timber or staves in this state, shall have a lien thereon for the amount 
due for such labor or services, and the same shall take precedence of all 
other claims thereon. In order to act as a lien a statement of the nature 
of the claim shall be filed with the clerk of the county in which the ser- 
vice was performed. In case the labor was running or driving logs it 
shall be filed in the county where the drive terminated. Such petition 
shall be filed within 15 days af f er the completion of such labor. Provided, 
that whenever such lien shall be claimed for labor done between October 
30th and April 1st, next, such petition shall be filed on or before the 15th 
day of said April, and when done between March 30th and November 1st, 
it shall be filed on or before November 15 ; unless it be so filed such lien 
shall terminate. Suits shall be begun within ihree months from time of 
filing ; Provided, that any sale or transfer of logs, etc., during the time for, 



LOG LIEN LAWS. 173 



and previous to the filing of such statement shall not affect such lien, but 
it shall remain and be enforced "against such logs, etc., in whosesoever 
possession found. 

Any person having such lien may enforce the same by an attachment 
against the lo.zs in the circuit courts of the state, making full statement 
of account, with affidavit. No sheriff or other officer shall attach or levy 
upon any such logs, etc., when in transit, when the destination is wi'hin 
the state. Such logs, etc., shall be released if the owner or agent siiall 
give, according to law, a bond for double the amount claimed. No atach- 
ment shall be issued unless the amount due shall be $100 and upwards, 
but several claims may be combined, making the whole equal to $100 or 
upwards, when it shall be treated as one claim, and their agent or attor- 
ney shall be considered the plaintiff. 



WISCONSIN. 

Any person who shall furnish any supplies, rafting or other materials, 
or perform any service in cutting, felling, hauling, running, driving, raft- 
ing, booming, cutting or towing any logs or timber in the counties of Ash- 
land, Barron, Bayfield, Brown, Burnett, Chippewa, Clark, Door, Douglas, 
Eau Claire, Fond du Lac, Jackson, Kewaunee, LaCros e, Lincoln, Manito- 
woc, Marathon, Monroe, Oconto, Outagamie, Pierce, Polk. Portage, Sha- 
wano, St. Croix, Taylor, Waupaca, Winnebago, or Wood, shall have a hen 
upon such logs or timber for the amount due for such supplies, etc., which 
shall take precedence of all other claims or liens thereon, and such liens 
for labor and services shall take precedence of such liens for supplies or 
materials ; Provided, that in the counties of Chippewa and Taylor there 
shall also be such lien for the services of men and teams engaged in haul- 
ing supplies for those engaged in such business ; but there shall be no 
lien for such supplies or materials furnished. 

The word " supplies," as used in the preceding section, is applicable to 
all those counties except Lincoln, Marathon, Portage, Wood, FondduLao? 
Outagamie, Shawano, Waupaca and Winnebago, and such portions of 
Brown and Oconto, wherein such logs or timber are run down the Wolf 
river or any of its tributaries, and shall mean only feed for teams and the 
food used in camp to support the men ; and in the other counties men? 
tioned, ihe words "supplies, rafting or other materials" shall mean everyr 
thing supplied for carrying on the business. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
Any person who shall perform labor or furnish supplies to the amount 
of $15 or more toward rafting, driving, cutting, hauling, or drawing wood, 



174 LOG LIEN LAWS. 

bark, lumber or logs, or at cooking or hauling supplies, in aid of such 
labor, shall have a lien thereon for such labor or supplies, which lien shall 
take precedence of all prior claims, except for public taxes, to continue 
90 days (changed from 60 days, July 19, 1879) after the contract is com- 
pleted, and may be secured by attachment. 

Any sub-contractor can secure the same by giving notice, in writing, to 
the owner of his intention. 



VERMONT 

A person cutting or drawing logs shall have a lien thereon for his wages 
which shall take precedence of other claims except public taxes, and shall 
continue 60 days after the services are performed. But such lien shall 
not attach until the person claiming it files in the town clerk's office, or, 
if the town is not organized, in the county clerk's office, a brief statement 
of the contract and his purpose to enforce the hen. 

Such lien shall have no validity against a subsequent purchaser unless 
a suit is brought, and the logs attached within 30 days from the time the 
plaintiff 's right of action accrues ; and shall have no validity against any- 
one unless suit is brought and the logs attached within 60 days from such 
time. 



MAINE. 



A person who labors at cutting, hauling, rafting or driving logs or lum- 
ber, or at cooking for persons engaged in such labor, shall have alien 
thereon for the amount due for his personal services, and the services 
performed by his team, which shall take precedence of all other claims, 
except liens reserved to the states of Maine and Massachusetts; to con- 
tinue for 60 days after the logs or lumber arrive at the place of destination 
for sale or manufacture ; and be enforced by attachment. 

A lien on hemlock bark shall not continue after the bark reaches the 
market. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



Miscellaneous Information. 



SEASONING AND SHRINKING OF TIMBER. 

Were the properties of timber investigated with the same care and re- 
search bestowed upon metals it would be found that there is even a 
greater variation in them. A majority of the varieties of wood owe their 
commercial value to two particular characteristics ; t eauty of grain and 
susceptibility to polish. 

The strength of a piece of timber depends upon the part of the tree 
from which it is taken. Up to a certain age, the hea: t of the tree is best ; 
after that period, it begins to fail gradually. The ash, beech, elm and fir 
are generally considered at their best when of from 70 to 8G years growth, 
and the oak is seldom at its best in less than 100 years, much, however, 
depending on surrounding circumstances. As a rule, trees should not be 
cut before arriving at maturity, because there is then too much sap wood, 
which is the worst part, being softer and more liable to decay. 

The strength of many woods is nearly doubled by the process of season- 
ing; hence timber used in its green state is not only weak, but is exposed 
to continual change of bulk, form and stability. Wood will always warp 
after a fresh surface has been exposed, and will change its form by the 
presence of moisture. The effect of moisture on dry wood is to cause the 
tubular fibres to swell ; hence if a board be wet upon one side, the fibers 
there will be distended and it will bend. The natural law that governs 
the shrinking or contraction of timber is most important to practical 
men, but is too often overlooked. The amount of the shrinkage of timber 
in length when seasoning is so inconsiderable that it may in practi e be 
disregarded (except in the redwood of the Pacific slope, which is said to 
shrink only in length), but the shrinkage in transverse directions is much 
greater, and presents some peculiarities which can only be explained 
by examining the structure of the wood as resulting from its mode of 
growth. 

An examination of the end section of any exogenous tree, such as beech 
or oak, will show the general arrangement of its structure. It consists 
of a mass of longitudinal fibrous tubes, arranged in irregular circles, 
which are bound together by means of radial plates or rays, which have 
been variously named; they are the "silver grain" of the carpenter, or the 



176 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



'•medullary rays" of the botanist, and are in reality the same as the pith. 
The radial direction of these plates or rays and the longitudinal disposi- 
tion of the woody fiber must be . considered in order to understand the 
action of seasoning; for the lateral contraction or collapsing of the lon- 
gitudinal fibrous or tubular part of the structure cannot take place with- 
out first tearing the medullary rays, hence the shrinking of the wooden 
bundles finds relief by splitting the timber in radial lines from the center, 
parallel with the medullary rays, thereby enabling the tree to maintain 
its full diameter. If the entire mass of tubular fiber composing the tree 
were to contract bodily, then the medullary rays would, of necessity, 
have to be crushed in the radial direction to enable it to take place, and 
the timber would thus be as much injured in proportion as would be the 
case in crushing the wood in a longitudinal direction. 

If an oak or beech tree is cut into four quarters, by passing the saw 
twice through the center at right angles, before the splitting and contract- 
ing has commenced, the lines forming the angle of each quarter will be 




Fig. 1. 
of the same length and at right angles to each other, or in techical lan- 
guage, square ; but after storage in a dry place for a year, a great change 
will be found to have taken place, both in the form and in the dimensions 
of the pieces, The lines upon the two flat surfaces will still be of the 
same length as before, but the exterior diameter of the quarter circle will 
have contracted very considerably, and the two face lines will not be at 
right angles to each other, by reason of the collapsing of the vertical 
fibers, while the medullary rays will have been brought closer. 

Supposing the log to be sawed into five pieces of plank, let us consider 
the action of the various pieces as shown in the diagram Fig. 1. After 
seasoning and contracting, it will be found that the middle of the center 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



177 



plank still retains the original thickness, from the resistance of the me- 
dullary rays, while the thickness will be gradually reduced toward the 
edges, for want of support, and the entire breadth of the plank will be 
the same as it was at first. If, then, we take the planks at each side of 
the center, by the same law, their change and behavior will be quite dif- 
ferent. They will still retain their original thickness in the center, but 
will be a little reduced on each edge throughout. But the side next to the 
heart of the tree will be pulled round or bent convex, while the outside will 
be the reverse, or hollow, and the plank will be considerably narrower 
throughout its entire length, more especially on the surface of the hollow 
side. Selecting the next two planks, they will be found to have lost none 
of their thickness at the center, and very little of their thickness at the 
edges, but very much of their breadth, and will be curved round on the 
heart side and made hollow on the outside. Suppose some of these 
planks to be cut into square prisms when in the green state ; the shape 
that these prisms will assume after a period of seasoning will entirely de- 
pend upon the part of the tree to which they belonged, the greatest altera- 
tion being perpen ".icular to the medullary rays. Then, if the square was 
originally near the outside, as shown by the black border lines in Fig. 2, 




Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3. 



the effect will be a contraction, as shown by the inside lines. After a year 
or two the square end of the prism will become rhomboidal. By under- 
standing this natural law, it is comparatively easy to predict the future 
behavior of a board or plank, by carefully examining the end wood, in 
order to ascertain the part of the log from which it has been cut, as shown 
by the angle of the ring growths and the medullary rays. 

If the stick of sawed timber be cut so as to leave the heart in or near 
the center, it will season square in form, but the end will show a frac ure 
of the medullary rays, commonly spoken of as season-checking, as illus- 
trated in Fig. 3, Here the contrast between the rhomboidal seasoning of 



178 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



the stick sawed from the outside diameter of a log, and that in which the 
heart is left, is made quite p'ain. All sawyers who have been puzzled 
with the warping of logs upon ths mill carriage will in this severance of 
the medullary rays find an explanation of the phenomenon, which is less 
marked in soft timber than in the closer grain of southern and Norway 
pine, or of oak, beech and other hardwoods. 



QUARTER AND BASTARD SAWING. 
Quarter-sawing and rift-sawing are the same. To secure the minimum 
of shrinkage or warp, a board must be rift-sawed, which means cutting 
the medullary rays at right angles with the circles of growth. Quartered 
oak is simply rift-sawed, the designation "quartered" arising from the 
common method of first cutting the log into quarters, and then cutting 
the quarters as shown in Fig. 1 of the following diagrams. The lines 




Fig. 2 



a o, c d are those upon which the log is supposed to be quartered. 
The circles represent the concentric rings of the tree's growth. The 
straight lines across the upper half of the log, B, show the ordinary 
method of sl : cing it up into boards with a circular or gang. Wherever 
the cut of the saw crosses the circles at right angles or nearly so that 
much of the board is rift-sawed; when it runs nearly parallel with them 
it exposes the grain, and is what is rather inelegantly termed bastard. 
The board nearest the middle, g g, will be almost a perfectly rift-cut piece, 
while the fourth one from it toward the outside will be just about half 
rift and half bastard. Supposing the lower quarter A to be cut out from 
the log, the common and most simple method of quarter-sawing it is to 
make the cuts, as shown by the e traight lines which cross the concentric 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 179 

rings at sufficiently near right angles for making good flooring. Each 
piece, however, will have a bevel edge as shown, which must, of course, 
be squared by the edger. Special arrangements of mill carriage and head 
blocks are in use for rift-sawing when great accuracy is desired. 

The method of bastard-sawing is illustrated in Fig. 2. It simply con- 
sists of so turning the log upon the carriage as to expose the grain as 
much as possible. The diagram only shows cuts that would make an 
ordinary cant of the piece, but the judgment of the sawyer must be ex- 
ercised to so turn the log as will make its form square, octagon or hec- 
tagon, as may be best to expose instead of cut across the grain, and allow 
its curve to show in the center of the board. Both of these methods of 
sawing, as will be seen, are wasteful to the timber, a matter that cannot 
well be avoided. Judicious bastard-sawing in certain kinds of wood, such 




Fig. 4 Rift Sawed 
as oak or ash, develops some very beautiful grain effects, and for orna- 
mental finishing purposes enhances the value of the wood to as great, or 
even a greater degree than by rift-sawing it, as the latter is mainly required 
where the stuff is to withstand continuous wear, as in the case of flooring, 
or is to fill a place where it must neither shrink nor warp, as in the case 
of sounding or reed boards in musical instru men's. The appearance of 
pieces of lumber cut rife and bastard may be seen in Figures 3 and 4. 
If laid in a floor Fig. 3 will wear rapidly and unevenly, and always have a 
tendency to sliver, while Fig. 4 having the ends of the grain exposed to 
receive th? wear, will greatly outlast it, wear more evenly and present a 
much better appearance. On the other hand as the panel to a desk or 
other piece of furniture, Fig. 3 would be much more handsome than the 
other. 



CAPACITY OF CISTERNS. 
To find the capacity of a cylindrical cistern or other vessel in gallons 
and barrels (such a Vessel has a circle for its bottom and has perpendicu- 
lar sides) — Multiply the square of the diameter by the dep'.h (all in feet), 



180 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 



and multiply the product by 5.875+ for gallons or by .1865 for barrels. 
These results are correct within within a very small fraction. 

Table of capacity for each 6 inches in depth of cisterns from 6 inches to 
25 feet in diameter in standard gallons of 231 cubic inches and barrels : 



DIAMETEK. 


GALLONS. 


BARBELS. 


DIAMETEK. 


GALLONS. 


BARBELS. 


6 in 


.. .7344.. 


.. .023.. 


12 ft. 6 in . . 


.. 457.7489.. 


.. 14.589.. 


8 in 


.. 1.3056.. 


. . .041 . . 


13ft 


.. 496.4532.. 


.. 15.766.. 


9 in 


.. 1.6524.. 


.. .052.. 

.. .065.. 

.093.. 


13 ft. 6 in.. 
14ft 

14 ft. 6 in.. 


.. 535 3763.. 
.. 575.7682.. 
.. 617.6289.. 


.. 17.002.. 


10 i 


.. 2.0800.. 


.. 1 8.285.. 


12 in 


.. 2.9376.. 


.. 19.615.. 


1 ft. 6 in... 


.. 6.6096.. 
.. 11.7500.. 


.. .210.. 
.373.. 


15 ft 


.. 660.9584.. 


.. 20.990.. 


2ft 


15 ft. 6 in.. 


.. 705.7567.. 


.. 22.413.. 


2 ft. 6 in... 


.. 18.3599.. 


.. .583.. 


16ft 


.. 752.0238.. 


.. 23.882.. 


3ft 


.. 26.4383.. 


.. .839.. 


16 ft. 6 in.. 


.. 799.7597.. 


.. 25.398.. 


3 ft. 6 in. . . 


.. 35.9855.. 


.. 1.143.. 


17ft 


.. 848.9644. . 


.. 26.960.. 


4 ft 


.. 47.0015.. 


.. 1.492.. 


17 ft. 6 in.. 


.. 899.6378.. 


.. 28.570.. 


4 ft. 6 in... 


.. 59.4862.. 


.. 1.889.. 


18ft 


.. 951.7801.. 


.. 3U.226.. 


5ft 


.. 73.4398.. 


.. 2.332.. 


18 ft. 6 in.. 


..1005.3912.. 


.. 31.929.. 


5ft, 6 in... 


.. 88.8622.. 


.. 2.822.. 


19 ft 


..1060.4711.. 


.. 33.677.. 


6 ft 


..105.7533.. 


.. 3 358.. 


19ft. 6 in.. 


..1117.0197.. 


.. 35.473.. 


6 ft. 6 in... 


..124.1133.. 
.. 143.9420.. 


.. 3.941.. 
.. 4.571.. 


20 ft 


..1175.0372.. 


.. 37.316.. 


7ft 


20ft.6in.. 


..1234.5235.. 


.. 39.205.. 


7 ft. 6 in... 


..165.2396.. 


.. 5.247.. 


21 ft 


..1295.8785.. 


.. 41.141.. 


8ft 


.. 188.0060.. 


.. 5.971.. 


21 ft. 6 in.. 


..1357.9024.. 


.. 43.123.. 


8 ft. 6 in... 


.. 212.2411.. 
..237.9450.. 


.. 6.740.. 
.. 7.556.. 


22 ft 


..1421.7950.. 


.. 45.152.. 


9ft 


22 ft. 6 in.. 


..1487.2827.. 


., 47.228.. 


9 ft. 6 in... 


.. 265.1178.. 
.. 293.7593.. 


.. 8.419.. 
.. 9.329.. 


23 ft 


..1553.9867.. 


.. 49.350.. 


10 ft 


23 ft. 6 in.. 


..1622.2857.. 


.. 51.519.. 


10ft. Gin... 


..323.9696.. 


..10.285.. 


24 ft 


..1692.0536.. 


.. 53.735.. 


lift 


..355.4487.. 


..11.288.. 


24 ft. 6 in.. 


..1763.2902.. 


.. 56.184.. 


11 ft. 6 in... 


..388.4966.. 
..423.0134.. 


..12.338.. 
.. 13.434.. 


25 ft 


..1830.9956.. 


.. 58.356.. 


12 ft 



















To find, by means of the above table, the capacity of a cylindrical cis- 
tern—Multiply the number in the table opposite the given diameter by 
the number of times 6 inches is contained in the given depth. 

Example : — Find the number of gallons contained in a tank 18 feet in 
diameter and 15}£ feet deep. By the table the capacity of a vessel 18 feet 
in diameter and 6 inches deep is 951.7801 gallons, 6 inches is contained in 
15%, feet 31 times, 951.7801X31=29505.1831 the number of gallons. The 
above table will give results correct to thousandths of gallons and hun- 
dredths of barrels. 



To find the contents of a corn crib : Rule — Multiply the number of 
cubic feet by 4% and point off one decimal place — the result will be the 
answer in bushels. How many bushels will a crib hold that is 48 feet long, 
1y 2 feet wide and 8} £ feet high ?— 4_8X7}£ X 8J£ =3,060 cubic feet ; 3,060X 
4^=12,240 ; 12240+1530=1377. bushels, answer. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 181 

1.0G SCALING. 
The first thing a log scaler determines is the length of the log, then its 
quality or grade, which must be determined by the defects visible to the 
eye. These consist of crooks, knots, punks, hollows, etc. Looking at 
both ends of the log he ascertains whether 1here is any hollow, or ring 
rot, and if the butt is free from shake. Having settled these points, he 
lays his rule on the na rowest diameter of the small end of the log. If it 
is crooked, he takes his diameter (always inside the bark) from a point 
which allows the saw to pass through the log fully removing the slab. If 
the butt is hollow, he adds three inches to the diameter of the hollow, 
multiplies the size by itself, and deducts from the gross measurement. 
If it is a shaky log he allows for that in determining the quality. If it has 
not been properly square butted, he makes a memorandum so that the 
expense of butting can be charged to the seller, or logger, unless in 
in the bargain he is instructed to deduct enough from the measurement 
to cover the cost. A log cannot be considered merchantable until it is 
fully prepared for market. If it is very knotty, he lowers its grade ac- 
cordingly, if he is grading in quality. If the knots are large, black or 
rotten, he is to determine the class in which the log belongs by the dam- 
age caused by the defects. If the defect is ring rot, he should take no 
account of the log at all, as it is not worth the expense of handling, in a 
majority .of cases. If a log is less than 24 feet long,it should be measured at 
the end; over that length it is usually measured in the middle by calipers. 
In very long timber it is sometimes customary to measure at lengths of 
12, 14 or 16 feet; this, however, is a matter of agreement between buyer 
and seller. Dead timber is always measured inside the decayed or black 
stained sap. In many hardwood sections the sap is always excludedfrom 
the diameter of the log. Bright sap in pine, hemlock, poplar, whitewood, 
basswood and spruce is always measured. D.ameters are always to be 
taken inside of the bark the smallest way of 1 he smallest end of the log. 



For sharpening saws and grinding all kinds of cutters for wood-work- 
ing, Tanite emery wheels are generally considered the best thing to use. 
Grinding machines for all sorts of purposes are in use, and reduce the 
trouble and labor of gumming and sharpening to the minimum. In any 
well regulated mill or factory, a small outlay judiciously made in this 
direction never fa'ls to yield large returns. 



LAND MEASURE. 
To find the number of acres in a rectangular piece of land (a rectangle 
has all square corners)— Multiply the length by the breadth (in rods) and 
divide by 160; or, if the dimensions are measured in feet, divide by 43,- 



182 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 




Fig. 2 



560. To find the number of acres in a triangular piece of land — Multiply 
the length of one side by half the 
perpendicular distance between 
that side and the opposite cor- 
ner (lengths in rods), and divide 
the product by 160. Example : 
We have a piece of land, ABC, 
(Fig. 1) the side A C, is 80 rods 
long, and the distance D B, is 30 
rods; }^ of 30=15, 80X15=1200, 
1200^-160=7^, the number of 
acres in piece. 

To find the number of acres 
in a quadrilateral, having two 
opposite sides parallel, (such is 
Fig. 2)— Multiply half the sum of 
the parallel sides by the perpen- 
dicular distance between them, 
in rods, and divide the product 
by 160. Example: Given a piece 
of land A B CE, (Fig. 2) with 
the side B C parallel to A E. AE 
=120 rods, B C=95rods, CZ>=70 
rods (120+95)-s-2=107.5 107.5X 
70=12,525, the number of square 
rods in piece, 12,525-^-160=78 
9-32, the number of acres. 

To find the area of a field hav- 
ing the opposite sides nearly par- 
allel—Multiply half the sum of 
two opposite sides by half the 
sum of the other two sides. Ex- 
ample : In Fig. 3 the opposite 
sides A D and B C are nearly 
par llel as also the sides A B and 
C V. A J>=120, B C=100, A B— 
40, C Z>=55. Then the area of 
the figure is expressed as fol" j_ 
lows : area=(120+100)-^2X(40+ 

55-^2=5225. If the measure was taken in rods, 5225-f-160=32%nearly, the 
number of acres in a piece of land of those dimensions This last rule is 
not geometrically correct, but in such a case as that giventhe result is near 
enough for most purposes. If perfect accuracy is des.red, or the piece 




MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



1S3 



is of more irregular shape, the method indicated in Fig. 4 should be 
adopted, i. e. : divide the whole piece into triangles and obtain the area 
of each as directed. This -will apply to fields of any number of sides. 



NAILS. 
Nails are put up 100 pounds to the £eg. 



SIZES. 


LENGTH 
INCHES. 


NAILS 

IN A 

POUND. 


SIZES. 


LENGTH 
INCHES. 


NAILS 

IN A 
POUND. 


3d fine blued 

3d common blued 

4d 

6d 

8d 
lOd 
12d 
16d 
20d 
30d 
40d 
50d 


1% 

Xi 

2 

2y 2 

3 

3M 

3% 

4 

4^ 

5 

5% 

6 


725 

. 400 

300 

150 

85 
60 
50 
40 
20 
16 
14 
11 
8 


6d fence 

8d " 

lOd " 

12d " 

16d " 

t^d finishing 

8d 
lOd 

6d clinching. . . 

8d 
lOd 


2 

2% 
8 ~ 
8fc 

3% 

2 

2^ 

3 

2 

2% 

3 


80 

50 

30 

27 

20 

317 

208 

126 

118 

80 

45 


60d 









Five pounds of 4d, or 3% pounds of 3d will lay 1,000 shingles, 
three-quarters pounds of 3d fine will put on 1,000 lath. 



Quantity of Seeds Required per Acre. 



to 



Wheat Vfa to 2 bu. 

Rye ly 2 

Oats 3 ~ 

Barley 2 " 

Peas 2 

White beans 1% 

Buckwheat % 

Corn, broadcast 4 

Corn in drills 2 

Corn in hills 4 

Broom corn y 2 

Potatoes 10 



to 



3 " 

8qts. 

bu. 

15 " 



Beets 3 

Carrots 2 

Ruta bagas % 

Millet y 2 

Clover, white 4 

Clover, red 8 

Timothy 6 

Orchard grass 2 

Red top 1 

Bluegr j ss 2 

Mixed, lawn grass 1 

Tobacco 2 



lbs 



bu. 
qts. 



bu. 
pks. 
bu. 



to 2 





Hills in an Ac 
27 hills. 


re of Ground. 


fisn hills 


35 " 


35 " 

48 " 

69 " 

108 " 

193 " 

302 " 

435 " 


6 
5 

3% 

3 

2^ 

2 

1 


' 1,210 " 


30 " 

25 " 

20 " 


1.732 " 

3.556 " 

' 4 840 " 


15 - 

M 

10 


6.969 " 

10:890 " 

43.560 " 



184 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 

MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
Table of Ordinary Units. 



144 sq. in.=l sq. ft. 
30% sq. yds.=l sq. rod. 
640 acres=l sq. mile or section. 



9 sq. f t.=l sq. yd. 

160 sq. rods=l acre. 

36 sections=l township. 



Comparative Table. 



SQ. MI. 


ACRES. 


SQ. KODS. SQ. YDS. SQ. FT. SQ. IN. 


1 = 


640 = 


102,400 = 3,097,600 = 27,878,400 == 4.014,489.600 




1 = 


160 = 4,840 = 43,560 = 6,272,640 

1 = 30% = 272% = 39.204 

1 = 9 = 1,296 

1 = 144 



Surveyors use the following table in measuring land : 



625 sq. links make 1 pole. 
16 poles make 1 sq. chain. 
10 sq. chains make 1 acre. 



640 acres make 1 sq. chain. 

36 sq. miles (6 miles sq.) township. 



POLES. 




SQ. LINKS. 


3.686.400 


— 


2,340.000.000 


102,400 


— 


6.400,000 


ieo 


== 


100.000 


16 


= 


10.CO0 


1 


= 


625 



Comparative Table. 

TP. SQ. MILES. ACEES. SQ. CHAINS. 

1 = 36 = 23,040 = 230,400 = 

1 = 640 = 6,400 = 

1 = 10 = 

1 = 

The square foot is used in estimating glazing, stone-cutting, etc. ; the 
square yard in plastering, roofing, paving, etc.; the acre in measuring 
land. 

Solid or Cubic Measure. 

1728 cu. inches make one cu. foot. I 46,656 cu. inches make onecu. yard. 
27 culic feet make one cubic yard. | 

40 cu. ft. of round timber=:l ton. I 50 cu. ft. of hewed timber=l ton. 
42 cu. ft. Oi. shipping timbered ton. | 12S cu. ft.=l cord. 

Timber in one load — English. 



50 cu. ft of square timber. 
109 lin. ft. of 6x12 in. " 
200 " of 6x6 
150 " 4 in. planking 12 in wide. 



200 lin. ft. 3 in. planking 12 in. wide. 
300 " 2 in. " " 

400 " V/o in. " 
600 " lin. 



Liquid Measure. 
The United States standard for measurement of all liquids is the"wine" 
or "Winchester" gallon containing 231 cubic inches. 
4 gills make one pint. I 313a gallons make one barrel. 

2 pints " quart. 2 barrels " hogshead. 

4 quarts " gallon. 

Dry Measure. 
The Government standard of dry measure of the United States is the 
"Winchester Bushel" so called, being a cylindrical vessel having an inside 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 185 

diameter of 18}£ inches, and a depth of 8 inches, and containing 2150.42 
cubic inches. 

4 gills make one pint. I 8 quarts make one peck. 

2 pints " quart. | 4 pecks " bushel. 

Measures of Weight. 

The Pound is the United States standard of weight as applied to general 
purposes, and is the weight of 27.7015 cubic inches of distil'ed water, at 
its greatest density (i. e. at 39° 83" Farenheit, the barometer being at 30 
inches), and is equivalent to 7,000 Troy gr ins. 
27 11-32 grains make one dram. I 25 p unds make one quarter. 

16 drams " ounce. 4 quarters make one cwt. 

16 oun. es " pound. | 20 cwt. " ton. 

(In some cases the following table for gross weight is used: 28 lb.=l 
quar. ; 4quar.=l cwt. ; 20 cwt., or 2240 lbs.— 1 ton. 
Comparative Table of Weights. 

Teoy. Apothecaries. Avoirdupois. 

1 pound equals 5,760 grains, equals 5,760 grains, equals 7,000 grains. 
1 ounce " 480 " " 480 " " 437.5 " 

175 pounds " 175 pounds " 144 pounds. 

The half peck, or dry gallon, contains 268 8 cubic inches. Six quarts, 
dry measure, are equal to nearly 7 quarts, liquid measure. 
Measures of Capacity. 

The following table will often be found convenient, taking inside di- 
mensions : 
A box 24 in. x 24 in. x 14.7 will contain a barrel of 31% gallons. 
A box 15 in. x 14 in. x 11 in. will contain 10 gallons. 
A box Q% in. x 7 in. x 4 in. will contain a gallon. 
A box 4 in. x 4 in. x 3.6 in. will contain a quart. 
A box 24 in. x 28 in. x 16 in. will contain 5 bushels. 
A box 16 in. x 12 in. x 11.2 in. will contain a busnel. 
A box 12 in. x 11.2 in. x 8 in. will contain a half bushel. 
A box 7 in. x 6.4 i >. x 12 in. will contain a p ck. 
A box 8.4 in. x 8 in. x 4 in. will contain a half peck, or 4 dry quarts. 
A box 6 in. x 5 3-5 in., and 4 in. deep, will contain a half gallon. 
A box 4 in. x 4 in., and 2 1-10 deep, will contain a pint. 

Hay Measure. — About 500 cubic feet of well-settled hay, or about 700 
of new mown hay, will make a ton. To estimate amount of hay in mow 
— Ten cubic yards of meadow hay weigh a ton. When the hay is taken 
out of old stacks, 8 or 9 yards will make a ton. Eleven or 12 cubic yards 
of clover, when dry, weigh a ton. {Note — The only accurate method to 
measure hay is to weigh it, since two quantities equal in bulk will never 
weigh alike. Any rule is simply an approximation.) 

Floor, Wall and Roof Measure. — To find the number of square 
yards in a floor or wall : Rule — Multiply th e length by the width or 
height (in feet), and divide the product by 9 ; the result will be square 
yards. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFOEMATION. 



Number of Trees Required per Acre. 

4 feet apart each way 2,720 15 feet apart each way 

5 " " 1,74218 « " 

6 " " 1,200 20 " " 

8 " " 680 25 ■ " 

10 " " 43030 " " 

12 " " 325 33 " " 

Dimensions of One Acre. 
A square, whose sides are 12,649 rods, or 69.57 yards or 208.71 feet long 
contains one acre. Table of dimensions of rectangle containing one acre: 
RODS. 



1 X160 


li$ X 106% 


2 X 80 


2J6 X 64 


3 X 53% 


3& X 45 5-7 


4 X 40 


4^X 35 5-9 


5 X 32 


5V 2 X 291-11 


6 X 26% 


6&X 24 8-13 


7 X 22 6-7 


7y 2 x 21% 


8 X 20 


8%X 1814-17 


9 X 17 7-9 


9V 2 X 16 16-19 


10 X 16 


10}/ 2 X 15 5-21 


11 X 14 6-11 


ll&X 13 21-33 


12 X 13% 


12*6 X 12 4-5 
12 13- 20 X 1213-20 











Estimates of Materials. 
S% barrels of lime will do 100 square yards plastering, two coats. 
2 " " " 100 one coat. 

iy 2 bushels of hair " 100 
1% yards good sand " 100 
% barrel of plaster (stucco), will hard-finish 100 square yards plastering. 

1 barrel of lime will lay 1,000 brick. (It takes good lime to do it.) 

2 " "1 cord rubble stone. 

J6 " "1 perch " (Estimating % c'd to perch.) 

To every barrel of lime estimate about % yards of good sand for 
plastering and brick work. 

Rules Relating to Hydraulic Prime Movers. 

Rule I. To calculate the gross power of a fall of water : To the actual 
head, add the height due to the velocity of water in the head-race. Multi- 
ply the sum by the volume of the flow of the water per second, and by the 
weight of water (62.4 lbs. per cu. ft.) The product will be the gross power 
in foot-lbs. per second. This divided by 550 equals J he gross horse-power. 

Rule II. To find the net power of a fall of wa^er. Multiply the gross 
power by the probable efficiency of the prime mover to be used. That 
effi .iency ranges in 

Water pressure engines from 65 to .75 

Overshot and breast wheels 7C to .80 

Undershot wheels 4(i to .60 

Turbine wheels 60 to .80 

To find the height of fall corresponding to a given velocity : Divide the 
half-square of the velocity by 32.2 (g). 

Amount of Paint Required for a Given Surface. 

It is impossible to give a rule that will apply n all cases, as the amount 
varies with the kind and thickness of the paint, the kind of wood or other 
material to which it is applied, the age of the surface, etc. The following 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



187 



is an approximate rule : Divide the number of square feet of surface by 
200. The result will be the number of gallons of liquid paint required to 
give two coats ; or, divide by 18 and the result will be the number of 
pounds of pure ground white lead required to give three coats. 



CIRCLES. 
Table showing the circumferences and areas of circles with diameters 
from 1 to 50 with sides of equal squares : 



« 








« 


Q 






1 




< 


H 3 


B 




<] 








< 








m 
< 


&3 

°5 




p 




H co 




P 




H w 


3 








02 


3 


o 

M 

o 




s 


i. 


3.141 


.7854 


.886 


22. 


69.11 


380.13 


19.496 


1.5 


4.712 


1.797 


1.329 


23. 


72.25 


415.47 


20.383 


2. 


6.283 


3.141 


1.772 


24. 


75.39 


452.39 


21.269 


2.5 


7.854 


4.9U8 


2.215 


25. 


78.54 


490.87 


22.155 


3. 


9424 


7.068 


2.658 


26. 


81.68 


530.93 


23.041 


3.5 


10.99 


9.621 


3.101 


27. 


84.82 


572.55 


23.928 


4. 


12.56 


12.566 


3.544 


28. 


87.96 


615.75 


24.814 


45 


14.13 


15.904 


3.988 


29. 


91.10 


660.52 


25.700 


5. 


15.70 


19 635 


4.431 


30. 


94.24 


706.86 


26.586 


5.5 


17.27 


23.758 


4 874 


31. 


97.38 


754.76 


27.473 


6. 


18 84 


28.274 


5 317 


32. 


100.5 


804.24 


28.359 


6.5 


20.42 


33.183 


5.760 


33. 


103.6 


855.30 


29.245 


7. 


21.99 


38.484 


6.203 


34. 


106.8 


907.92 


30.131 


7.5 


23.56 


44.178 


6.646 


35. 


109.9 


962.11 


31.017 


8. 


25.13 


50.265 


7 089 


36. 


113.0 


1017.8 


31.904 


8.5 


26.70 


56.745 


7.532 


37. 


116.2 


1075.2 


32.790 


9. 


28.27 


63.617 


7.976 


>38. 


119.3 


1134.1 


33.676 


9.5 


29.84 


70.882 


8.419 


39. 


122.5 


1194.5 


34.562 


10 


31.41 


78.539 


8.862 


40. 


125.6 


1256.6 


35.449 


11. 


34.55 


95.033 


9.748 


41. 


128.8 


1320.2 


36.335 


12. 


37.69 


113.09 


10.634 


42. 


131.9 


1385.4 


39.221 


13. 


40.84 


132.73 


11.520 


43. 


135.0 


1452.2 


38.107 


14. 


43 98 


153.93 


12.407 


44. 


138.2 


1520.5 


38.993 


15. 


47.12 


176.71 


13.293 


45. 


141.3 


1590.4 


39.880 


16. 


50.26 


201.06 


14.179 


46. 


144.5 • 


1661.9 


40.766 


17. 


53.40 


226.98 


15.065 


47. 


147.6 


1734.9 


41.652 


18. 


56.54 


254.46 


15.952 


48. 


150.7 


1809.5 


42.538 


19. 


59.69 


283.52 


16.838 


49. 


153.9 


1885.7 


43.425 


20. 


62.83 


314.16 


17.724 


50. 


157.0 


1963.5 


44.311 


21. 


65.97 


346.36 


18.610 





















T.;e circumference of a circle is the diameter multiplied by 3.1415926+, 
and the area is equal to the circumference multiplied by one-quarter th$ 
diameter; or, is equal to the diameter multiplied by .7854. These deci^ 
mals b:ing too extended for common use, the above table is an approxi- 
mate one, correct as far as the decimals are carried. 



INDEX. 



Index. 



PAGE. 

Air, impurities of 113 

Acre, dimensions to contain 186 

Area of fields 182 

Axles, oak 26 

Balancing cylinder cutters 146 

Balusters 27 

Band saws 140 

Bearings 142 

" to pour 144 

Belting 138 

Boilers 131 

Bolsters, oak 26 

Bow sprits 52 

Breaking strength of materials. .110 

Breasted shingles 62 

Bricks, number required in wall. 72 
Building contracts 95 

" paper 91 

Chimneys, proportions, for mills 132 

" for ventilation 97 

" how built, in plans 97 

Circles 187 

Cistern measure 179 

Compression, resistance to 109 

Corn crib, contents of 180 

Counter tops 27 

Cubic measur ■ 184 

Cutters, grinding of 145 

Doyle's log rule 60 

Driving pulleys 133 

Dry measure 184 

Emery wheels 181 

Engine 133 

" horse-power of 133 

Favorite log-rule 5S 

Flooring, ash 25 

oak 25 

" walnut 26 

Floors 106 

Framed sill 107 

Framing 106 

Grading, (see 'Inspection') 

Grinding plan'g machine cutters.145 

Handspikes, Quebec 48 

Hangers 134 

Harrow timber, oak 26 

Hay measure 185 

Heaters, cheap 98 



PAGE. 

Heating and ventilation 113-120 

Hills in acre 183 

Hoop poles, how made 43 

Horse-power, to find 133 

" required for planing-mill 134 

House plans 67-97 

Inspection — 

" Albany 7 

" Boston 44 

" Burlington, Vt 34 

" Chicago, cargo 16 

hardwood 24 

" yard grading 19 

" History of 5 

" Maine survey 32 

" Michigan 8 

" Minneapolis 53 

" New Orleans 35 

" Quebec culling 46 

" Saginaw 12 

" St. Louis 29 

" Williamsport 31 

Joists, distance apart Ill 

" sizes of 110 

" strength of 110 

Knees 45 

Land measure. 181 

Laws of Liens (see Mechanic's Lens) 

Laying out shafting 136 

Liens (see Mechanic's liens). 

Liquid mf.asure 184 

Load of timber 184 

Log Liens — 

" Maine 174 

" Michigan 172 

" Minnesota 172 

" New Hamshire 173 

" Vermont 174 

" Wisconsin 173 

Log measurements 55 

Loj: Rules — 

" Doyle's 50 

" Lumberman's Favorite 58 

" Scribner's 59 

Log scaling 181 

Lubricants for shafting 145 

Lumber measure, tables 120-129 

Lumber, weights of 23 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Masts, sizes of 36 

" etc., Quebec 47-52 

Matchers 141 

Materials, e timate of 186 

Mechanic's Liens 153-171 

" Arkansas 115 

" Connecticut 167 

Illinois 164 

" Indiana 162 

" Iowa 157 

" Kansas 155 

" Kentucky 161 

" Maine 168 

" Massachusetts 169 

" Michigan 159 

" Minne <ota 156 

" Missouri 154 

" Nebraska 153 

" New Hampshire 168 

NewYork 169 

Ohio 160 

" Pennsylvania 170 

" Tenne-see 166 

Vermont 167 

" West "Virginia 166 

Metals, weighls sustained by 109 

Model planing-mill 150 

Moulding cutters . . . „ . 148 

Nails, weights anc] siaes 183 

Nebraska sill 107 

Newels 27 

Oars, Quebec 48 

Oils 145 

Paint 186 

Paper, building 91 

Partitions, how supported 74 

Pitch of roof Ill 

Planers and matchers 141 

Planing-mill machinery 130-149 

" " Merriam's 150-152 

Plans, house 67-97 

" church 97 

" barn 99-104 

Plastering, pu'ty used in 87 

Puileys, size of 135 

" sp ed of 138 

Quarter and bastard sawing 178 

Quick-lime, weight of 89 

Rafters, to find length of 112 

Reaches, oak 26 

Ready Reckoner 120-129 



PAGE. 

Re-sawing machines 140 

Revoluti< ns of sha ts, number. .138 

Roof, elevation of Ill 

Roofing tin, how measured 84 

Rural Archi ecture 65-105 

Sa d, weight of 89 

Saws, pitch and set of teeth 140 

Scaling of logs 181 

Scribner's log rule 59 

Seasoning of timber 175 

Seeds required per acre 183 

Setting cutters 147 

Shafting 134 

" bent, to straighten 138 

" to line 136 

Shingle manufacture — 62 

Shingles, Chicago grading 18 

" number in roof 80 

" surface 1,000 will cover 64 

u . weight of 64 

Shrinking of timber 175 

Ship knees 45 

Sill, framed or 'Nebraska 1 107 

Smoke-stacks, height of 132 

Spars, sizes of 36 

Spindles 142 

Square measure 184 

Staves, how made 43 

" Puncheon , 51 

West India 51 

Steam room in boiler 132 

Strength of materials 108-112 

Surface measure 184 

Surveyors measure 184 

Tension 109 

Timber, load of 184 

Timber measure 120-129 

Tin roofing, how measured 84 

" sizes 84 

Transverse strains 110 

Trees in acre 186 

Ventilation 113 

" by stove pipe 119 

Wagon stock, oak 26 

hickory 26 

Wagon tongues 25 

Water wheels 186 

Weights, table of 185 

Weights materials will bear 110 

Woods, weights sustained by 109 



Gharles J. L. Meyer, 

MANUFACTURER OF 

Sash, Doors, Bliids, 

MOULDINGS, 

Stairs, Balusters, Newels, etc. 




Lumber, Lath aid Shihsles. 



SPECIAL TO THE TRADE. 

Estimates in detail for finishing tip any Building after Plans 
in this BooJc, will be furnished tipon short notice. Send for my 
New Moulding Booh, which contains a greater and better assort- 
ment of Designs of Mouldings, etc., than any other Book. 



OFFICE AND FACTORY, NORTH PIER, 

CHICAGO, ILL. 

And Western Ave., Fond dti Z*ac.,Wis. 

JUSTSae M a P with this Book. 



BIGELOWBROS. 



MANUFACTURES AND DEALERS IN 




, mtf 




Lath aid SHisaLES. 



The Better Grades of Strips 



.A. SPECIALTY. 



WE MANUFACTURE OUR OWN LUMBER. 

SEND FOR PRICE LIST. 



OFFICE AND YARD; 

Fisk Street, between Lumber and Twenty-Second, 

CHICAGO, ILL. 

See Map with this Book for location of our Chicago Yard, 
MILLS AT MUSKEGON, MICH, 



HICKORY 

Loa aid Board Rules 

We furnish the best made Rules to be found anywhere; none but the 
toughest second growth hickory timber used. We make the 

LUMBERMAN'S FAVORITE LOG RTJLE 

exclusively, of which we own the copyright, and especially commend it 
to lumbermen as the most satisfactory scale in use. In fact it is the only 
rule with which you can be sure the lumber sawed will hold up to the 
scale. See full table on page 58 of this booh and compare it 
with the Doyle or Scribner Scales. 

We have a very large and fine assortment of Hoard Rules. They are 
made with figures burned indellibly and plainly into the wood, and with 
steel or brass head that will not break off. These rules are made of stiff 
or flexible timber marked for measuring lumberfrom 2 to 30, or 36 inches 
wide, any six lengths which may be ordered. We have always in stock 
the standard rules, which are marked for 12, 14 and 16 feet lengths on* one 
side, and either 18, 20 and 22, or 8, 10 and 18 feet on the other. Special 
sizes made to order on short notice. 

SEND FOR CATALOGUE AND PRICES. 



Fim Statioieby foe Lotbebmei 

We are prepared to furnish any kind of Office Stationery such as Note, 
Letter and Bill Heads, Statements, Cards, Envelopes, or any kind of Office 
Blanks, Blank Books, etc., at the lowest prices that can be named for first 
class work. 

BETAIL LUMBER DEALEBS 

Can be supplied with attractive and tastefully printed Stationery at a 
cheaper rate than they can possibly procure it elsewhere, for this reason: 
We have a number of handsome designs for Letter Heads, Bill Heads, or 
Cards, which are suitable for anyone, from which we can print any num- 
ber at any time by simply changing the name and address. We can thus 
print one or two hundred Letter Heads or Cards cheaper than the jot) 
could be set up in an ordinary office, and in an infinitely better style than 
it can be done anywhere outside of a large city. We will send samples of 
several different kinds of Note and Bill Heads with prices to any one 
desiring to examine them, on receipt of a stamp to defray postage. Our 
facilities are such that any ordinary order can be filled immediately after 
its receipt.- We make a specialty of printing and illustrating Catalogues, 
Price Lists, Moulding Books, etc., our facilities for executing fine engrav- 
ings or maps being equal to any in the country. Estimates furnished 
upon any kind of work desired. Address, 

THE NORTHWESTERN LUMBERMAN, 

154 Lake Street, Chicago. 



Benjamin, Fischer &Mallery 

MANUFACTUEEES OF THE 

CELEBRATED TRIUMPH 

SurfaGers^ Matchers 

RE-SAWS, SHAYIHG BLOWERS, 
Hangers, Pulleys, Etc. 



COMPLETE OUTFITS FURNISHED FOR 

Planing Mills, Sash and Door Factories. 



Pumps, Heaters, Boilers, 

BELTIlsTG, 

PLANER AND MOULDING KNIVES, 

General Line of Mill Supplies. 



OFFICE, 26 SOUTH CANAL ST., 
CHICAGO, ILL 



Works, 22 and 24 South Jefferson St. 



RELIANCE -W^ ORKS. 

EWO. P. ALUS & CO., Prop's, 

MILWAUKEE, WIS., 
Sole Mamifacturers of 




The Reynolds-Gorliss Engine 

We refer to the following parties using these engines : 

SAW MILLS. size. 

Schulenberg & Boeckler Lumber Co Stillwater, Minn.. ..32X48 

St. Louis River Lumber Co. Knife Falls, Minn... 32X4 8 

Valley Lumber Co Eau Claire, Wis . . . . 28 X60 

W. J. Young & Co Clinton, Iowa 28X48 

Ludington, Wells & Van Schaick Co Menominee, Mich. . .28X48 

Ontonagon Lumber Co Ontonagon. .Mich. ..28X48 

H. Witbeck Co Marinette, Wis 26X48 

C. Lamb & Sons , Clinton, Iowa 26 X 4 8 

Lyons Lumber Co Lyons. Iowa 26X48 

C.Lamb & Sons Clinton, Iowa .20X48 

Yeomans Bros. & Hoc! gins Wicona. Minn 16X42 

Island Mill Co Burlington. Iowa. . . 18 X42 

Clark & Co Jefferson, Texas .... 16X42 

PLANING MILLS, SASH. DOORS. Etc. 

Palmer, Fuller & Co Chicago. Ill 32X60 

T.W.Harvey Chicago, 111 24X48 

Sanger, Rockwell & Co Milwaukee. Wis 22X48 

Wolf Brothers Chicago. Ill 16X42 

C. H. Horton Lumber Co Winona. Minn 16X42 

Preis & Lohse Chicago, 111 12X36 

Wm. Wilier Milwaukee, Wis 18X42 

With a given boiler capacity these engines will cut one-third more 
lumber, and do one-third more work than any slide-valve or throttling 
engine built. The motion is perfect at all times, maintaining an equal 
speed on the saws and machines, whether they are at work or not. 

Full particulars and prices given on application to 

EDW. P. ALLIS & CO., Milwaukee, Wis. 



RELIANCE WORKS. 

EWD, P. ALLIS & CO., Prop's, 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

Saw Mill Machinery. 




RELIANCE FRACTIONAL HEAD BLOCKS, 

The most perfect in the world. Their principal features are great strength 
and durability ; to set rapidly to one-sixteenth of an inch exact every time ; 
absolute precision and uniformity in the setting; the light and easy 
movement ; the knees are self receding ; the taper or independent move- 
ment of knees ; the brake-wheel or buffer on set shaft ; the last board in 
a log as perfect as the first ; the setting for stock or bill lumber is done 
conveniently, quickly and surely ; the setting is all done by one set of 
pawls ; every knee is provided with Reliance Patent Double Hook Dogs, 
which are the only dogs that will perfectly dog a log or cant by the move- 
ment of one lever. 

Heavy and Light Circular Mills, HinMey' 's Patent Sato Guide, 
Log Canters, Log Rollers, Log Jacks, the Reliance Gang 
Edger, Axitomatic Gang Ltimber Trimmer, Shaft- 
ing, Gearing, Pulleys and every description 
of Saw Mill Machinery. 

We can refer to hundreds of the largest and best mills in the country 
who are using our machinery. Send for Special Catalogue to 

EDW. P. ALUS & CO., Milwaukee, Wis. 



Palmer, Fuller & 60. 



WHOLESALE MANUFACTUEEES OF 



fjas^ f|oore, ||fm&s, 

MOULDINGS, 

stairs, stair railing, 
Balusters, Newel Posts, 

And all kinds of Interior Finish, 



We will furnish Estimates to Dealers in Lumber for fitting 

up Building-s from any plan in this Book. Send 

for our Moulding Book and Price List. 



MAIN OFFICE AND FACTORY: 

Gorier West 22d and Ubioi Streets, 

CHICAGO, ILL. 

.flQPSee Map accompanying this Book. 



Emery Wheels and Grinding Machines. 




The Taiite (Jompahy, 

STROUDSBURG, 
Monroe Co., Pennsylvania, XJ. S. A. 



This Company gives Special Attention to the manufacture 

of Emery Wheels and Grinding- Machinery 

for Saw Mill uses. 



Letters and orders may be directed to The Tanite Company, at any of 
the addresses given below, at each of which they carry a stock : 

r<TTTn A /"N f\ | 152 and 154 Lake Street 
UijLlUA.Vi"U \ 40 Franklin Street. 
ST. LOUIS— 209 North Third Street, 
ST. LOUIS— 811 to 819 North Second Street, 
CINCINNATI— 212 West Second Street. 
INDIANAPOLIS— Cor. Maryland and Delaware Streets. 
NEW ORLEANS— 61 St. Charles Street. 
SIDNEY, New Sotith Wales— 1 7 Pitt Street. 
SAN FRANCISCO— 2 and 4 California Street. 
NEW YORK— 42 Dey Street. 
PHILADELPHIA— 925 Market Street. 
BOSTON— 21 Doane Street. 
PORTLAND, Oregon— 43 Front Street. 
LONDON— 9 St. Andrew's Street, Holborn Viaduct, E. C. 
LIVERPOOL— 42, The Temple, Dale Street. 
J&S'Lai'ge, fully Illustrated Catalogue sent free on application. 



Philetus Sawyer, President. 
Edgar P. Sawyer. Vice-President. 



Tl 




^k-gc 



MANUFACTURERS < 



Lumber, Lath 

oififioe, 500 x/chmcibib: 

Lumber and Shingle Mills at Menekaune. Wis., mouth ojii 
JQS=WE EMPLOY NO TRAVELING SALESMEN, AN 
Our Entire Stock is in Excel! 



James B. Goodman, Secretary. 
Wm, O. Goodman, Treasurer. 




AND DEALERS IN 



and Shingles 

I STREET, OHIO-A^QO- 
e Menominee River. Send for Quotations on Car Lots. 
SOLICIT THE MAIL ORDERS OF THE TRADE. =®a 
Shape for Pound Shipment. 



HATGH, HOLBROOK & 60. 

DEALERS IN 

HARDWOOD 

POPLAR .AJNTID 

Southern Pine Lumber. 



Office, 25 West 12th Street, 
chicago, ill. 

BR^^TsTOia: YARDS: 

Cor. Erie and Kingsbury Sts, Chicago. 
ISO First Avenue, Chicago. 



CASH AND THE HIGHEST MARKET PRICE 

Paid for Ash, Hickory, Oak, Black Walnut, Cherry, Bxitterwut, 
Maple Basswood, Hickory, Elm, Gtmi, Chestnut, Florida and 
Spanish Cedar, Mahogany, Poplar and Southern Pine. 



DEALERS IN 

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENT, 

Furniture and Wagon Lumber. 



Railroad, Bridge and Warehouse Bills 

3 l± h / cut T0 ° rder - 



Henry Disston & Sons, 




■TOfoL |STEE 



PHILADELPHIA, PA. 



Beaich House aid Factory 



Randolph and Market Streets, 



Chicago, III.- 



T. W. HARVEY 




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WHOLESALE 







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PUBLIC BUILDINCS, THEATERS, RAILROAD DEPOTS. 

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